The chapter “An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara” explores the establishment and development of the Vijayanagara Empire, with its capital at Hampi in present-day Karnataka.The capital city was strategically built along the Tungabhadra River and became known for its impressive fortifications, temple architecture, and efficient water systems. Temples like the Virupaksha and Vittala temples were important religious and cultural centers, showcasing artistic brilliance and serving as hubs for festivals, trade, and social gatherings.
The city had distinct areas, including the sacred zone with temples and the royal zone with palaces and administrative buildings. The rulers maintained a powerful military and used a system of land grants to local chiefs, known as nayakas, in return for loyalty and service. Travelers from different parts of the world, such as Abdur Razzaq and Domingo Paes, described the city’s grandeur in their writings.
Exercise
Answer in 100-150 words
1. What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the last two centuries? In what way do you think they would have complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple?
Ans:
Researchers have used several methods over the past two centuries to understand the ruins of Hampi. Early British officers, like Colin Mackenzie, collected drawings, maps, and local stories. Later, archaeologists carried out detailed excavations, studied inscriptions, and carefully examined the buildings, temples, and sculptures. These efforts helped uncover the layout of the city, its architecture, and its historical importance. Written records of foreign visitors also added useful details about life in Vijayanagara.
The knowledge shared by the priests of the Virupaksha temple adds another important layer. Since they have lived there for generations, they pass on stories, rituals, and traditions that are not found in books or ruins. Their understanding of temple practices and local customs gives life to the historical evidence. Together, modern research and traditional knowledge help us understand Hampi in a more complete and meaningful way.
2. How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met?
Ans:
The rulers of Vijayanagara developed advanced and well-planned methods to meet the water needs of the city, which was located in a rocky and dry region. They built a variety of water structures such as tanks, canals, wells, and reservoirs to collect and store water from the Tungabhadra River and rainwater. One of the most impressive systems was the Kamalapura tank, which stored and supplied water for irrigation and daily use.
They also created a network of channels and embankments to guide water into agricultural fields and urban areas. Some of these were built by raising strong stone walls along the slopes to prevent water loss. The use of stepwells and cisterns near temples and royal buildings shows their focus on both practical use and aesthetic design. These methods ensured a steady water supply throughout the year, supporting both the city’s population and its agriculture.
3. What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city?
Ans:
One major advantage was security. By protecting farmlands with fort walls, the kingdom ensured that food supply continued even during attacks or wars. This helped prevent starvation and supported a stable economy. It also allowed farmers to live closer to their fields and stay safe from external threats. Additionally, it showed how important agriculture was to the city’s survival and prosperity.
However, there were also disadvantages. Building large fortifications required a lot of labor and resources, which could have been used elsewhere. Also, enclosing vast land areas meant that the fort had to be much bigger, making it harder to defend every part. In times of peace, such strong defenses around farmland may not have been necessary and could limit city expansion or trade routes.
4. What do you think was the significance of the rituals associated with the mahanavami dibba?
Ans:
The rituals at the Mahanavami Dibba held great political and cultural significance in the Vijayanagara Empire. This large platform was the center of royal ceremonies during the Navaratri (Mahanavami) festival, where the king performed rituals, reviewed military troops, and watched cultural events like dance, music, and wrestling. These public rituals were meant to display the king’s power, authority, and divine right to rule.
By participating in religious ceremonies and being seen by the people, the king strengthened his image as a protector of religion and tradition. The rituals also served to unite the nobles, army, and common people, reinforcing loyalty and respect toward the ruler. The grandeur of these events reflected the wealth and power of the empire, and helped build a sense of identity and pride among its citizens.
5. Fig. 7.33 is an illustration of another pillar from the Virupaksha temple. Do you notice any floral motifs? What are the animals shown? Why do you think they are depicted? Describe the human figures shown.
Ans:
Fig. 7.33 is an illustration of a beautifully carved pillar from the Virupaksha Temple, which displays intricate artwork and deep symbolic meaning. The pillar features elegant floral motifs such as lotus flowers and creepers, which are commonly used in temple architecture to symbolize purity, beauty, and divine presence. Various animals are also depicted on the pillar, including lions, elephants, and mythical creatures like Yalis. These animals are not just decorative but carry symbolic meanings—lions represent courage and protection, elephants symbolize strength and wisdom, while Yalis are considered guardians of sacred spaces. The presence of these animals reflects the temple’s role as a divine and protected space. Human figures are also carved into the pillar, often shown in graceful dance postures or playing musical instruments, which highlights the importance of art, culture, and devotion in temple life. Some figures may represent deities, warriors, or devotees, each telling a story or reflecting aspects of religious and cultural beliefs. These carvings together create a rich tapestry of spiritual and artistic expression, showcasing the grandeur of the temple’s architecture.
Write a short essay (about 250-300 words) on the following:
6. Discuss whether the term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used
Ans:The term “royal centre” refers to a specific area within the capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire, located in Hampi, Karnataka. This area contains a cluster of structures that were used for administrative, ceremonial, and possibly residential purposes by the royal family and the elite. While the term “royal centre” suggests a space exclusively meant for the king and his court, historians debate whether this description is entirely appropriate.
On one hand, the term “royal centre” is justified because the area includes grand architectural structures such as the Mahanavami Dibba, the King’s Audience Hall, the Queen’s Bath, and various palace foundations. These buildings reflect the wealth, power, and ceremonial life of the Vijayanagara rulers. The Mahanavami Dibba, for instance, was used for state functions and public celebrations, emphasizing the royal presence and authority in this space. The high level of planning and the scale of the monuments further indicate that this area held great importance in the empire’s political and cultural life.
However, some historians argue that the term may be somewhat misleading, as the area might not have been exclusively royal. There is also limited evidence of the actual royal palace structures, which leads scholars to believe that the so-called “royal centre” might have served multiple functions beyond royal use.
7. What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the rulers who commissioned them
Ans:
The architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and the elephant stables in the Vijayanagara Empire reveals much about the rulers who commissioned them.
The Lotus Mahal, with its graceful arches, domes, and symmetrical layout, combines elements of Indo-Islamic architecture. Its design suggests that the rulers of Vijayanagara appreciated beauty and elegance and were open to artistic influences from different cultures, including Islamic styles brought by neighboring kingdoms and traders. This openness shows a willingness to blend traditions, indicating that the rulers valued harmony and creativity in their architectural expression.
The size and grandeur of the stables show how much importance was given to military strength and royal processions. The Indo-Islamic influence in the stables’ design also reflects cultural interactions and the inclusive nature of the empire.
Together, these buildings show that the rulers of Vijayanagara were not only powerful but also cultured and forward-thinking. They invested in impressive and functional architecture, supported art and innovation, and created structures that represented both their royal authority and their appreciation for diverse artistic traditions.
8. What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara? How did they transform these traditions?
Ans:
The architects of the Vijayanagara Empire were inspired by several earlier architectural traditions, particularly those of the Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, and Cholas. These South Indian dynasties had already developed a rich legacy of temple architecture, characterized by intricate carvings, towering gopurams (gateway towers), and detailed sculptures. The Vijayanagara builders adopted and adapted many features from these traditions, such as pillared halls (mandapas), stepped tanks, and elaborate temple gateways.
However, the architects of Vijayanagara did not simply copy earlier styles—they transformed and innovated them to suit their own vision and needs. One major transformation was the use of large-scale granite structures that emphasized strength and grandeur. While earlier temples were often built with soapstone and had more delicate carvings, Vijayanagara architecture focused on bold forms and massive proportions.
Another transformation was the construction of distinctive gopurams with elaborate stucco figures, which became a central feature of temple architecture during this period. The temples were often surrounded by high enclosure walls and included spacious courtyards, reflecting both religious and social functions. The secular architecture, such as the Lotus Mahal, elephant stables, and royal platforms, showed influences from Islamic styles, including arches, domes, and geometric patterns.
By blending Dravidian temple traditions with Islamic architectural elements and emphasizing scale, symmetry, and durability, the architects of Vijayanagara created a unique and impressive style. This style not only reflected the empire’s political power and cultural richness but also stood as a symbol of unity in diversity.
9. What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you cull from the various descriptions in the chapter
Ans:
Although much of the focus is on royal structures and temple complexes, accounts by foreign travelers and historical records offer valuable insights into how common people lived and worked.
The city of Vijayanagara was known for its busy marketplaces, where traders sold a variety of goods such as spices, textiles, fruits, and even precious items like gems and horses. This indicates that commerce played a key role in the daily lives of many citizens. Farmers, artisans, merchants, and laborers were essential to the city’s economy and were engaged in various forms of work to support themselves and their families.
Most ordinary people lived in simple homes made from materials like mud, bricks, and thatch. Their lifestyle was modest compared to the grandeur of royal buildings, but they actively participated in community life. Religion had a strong influence, and temples were central to both worship and social gatherings. Festivals and cultural activities such as music and dance were also a part of daily life, especially during temple celebrations.
Agriculture was a major source of livelihood, with people relying on irrigation systems like tanks and canals to grow crops. Handicrafts and weaving were also common professions, with goods being produced for both local use and trade with other regions.
Overall, the lives of ordinary people in Vijayanagara were marked by hard work, active participation in economic and religious life, and a strong sense of community. Despite their simple living conditions, they contributed significantly to the success and vibrancy of the empire.
