Elections and the Election Commission

Elections are fundamental to India’s representative democracy, serving as a cornerstone for accountability, choice, and legitimacy. They enable citizens to elect representatives, hold them accountable, and choose from diverse political visions. Fair and transparent elections ensure the governing body derives authority from the people’s will and contributes to political education.

India’s electoral landscape includes:

• General Elections: Held every five years for the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.
• Mid-term Elections: Called if a legislative body dissolves prematurely.
• By-elections: To fill vacancies.
• Direct Elections: Citizens directly vote for representatives.
• Indirect Elections: Elected representatives vote for other representatives (e.g., President).

The election process is meticulously structured:

• Constituencies: Geographical divisions each electing one representative.
• Voter List: Comprehensive list of eligible citizens (18+).
• Nominations: Aspiring candidates formally apply.
• Polling Day: Citizens vote using Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs); indelible ink prevents multiple voting.
• Counting & Results: Votes are counted, and winners are declared.

The Election Commission of India (ECI), an independent constitutional body (Article 324), ensures free and fair elections. Comprising a Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners appointed by the President, the ECI’s independence is protected. Its extensive powers cover every stage, from announcing elections to declaring results, including electoral roll preparation, party recognition, enforcing the Model Code of Conduct, and advising on disqualifications. The ECI’s autonomy and authority are vital in maintaining electoral integrity despite challenges like money, criminalization, and dynastic politics.

EXERCISES

Question 1.
What is meant by Elections? Mention any one principle according to which elections are conducted in a democracy.
Ans:

What is meant by Elections?

Elections are a formal and organized process through which citizens in a democracy choose their representatives to hold public office. It is the primary mechanism by which the people exert their will and grant authority to a government. In essence, elections allow the population to periodically review the performance of their leaders and determine the future direction of their nation’s policy.

Mention any one principle according to which elections are conducted in a democracy.

One fundamental principle according to which elections are conducted in a democracy is Universal Adult Franchise (or Universal and Equal Suffrage).

This principle dictates that every adult citizen, regardless of their gender, religion, caste, socio-economic status, education, or any other discriminatory factor, has the right to vote. Furthermore, it implies that every vote cast holds equal weight, embodying the concept of “one person, one vote.” This ensures that political power ultimately resides with the people, and no individual’s vote is considered more or less valuable than another’s.

Question 2.

Who can become a Voter in India?

Ans:

To become a voter in India, an individual must generally meet the following criteria:

1. Citizenship: They must be a citizen of India. Non-citizens are not eligible to register as voters.
2. Age: They must have attained the age of 18 years on the “qualifying date.” The qualifying date is typically January 1st of the year in which the electoral roll is prepared or revised.
3. Ordinary Residence: They must be an “ordinarily resident” in the constituency where they wish to be enrolled as a voter. This means they should generally live in that particular area. One cannot be enrolled in more than one constituency or at more than one place in the same constituency.
4. No Disqualification: They must not be disqualified from voting under any law in force. Common disqualifications can include unsoundness of mind, or being barred due to corrupt practices or certain illegal acts related to elections. Prisoners are also generally not permitted to vote.

Registration is mandatory: Even if an individual meets all the eligibility criteria, they must register themselves in the electoral roll of their constituency to be able to vote. This typically involves filling out Form 6 (for general electors) or Form 6A (for overseas electors) and submitting it along with necessary documents like proof of identity, age, and address.

Question 3.

What is the significance of Elections in a democracy? OR Mention any one need for Elections.

Ans:

Elections are fundamental to the functioning of a democracy because they serve as the primary mechanism through which the people hold their leaders accountable and grant legitimacy to their government.

Here’s a breakdown of this significance:

• Accountability: In a representative democracy, citizens cannot directly make every decision.Elections provide a periodic opportunity for citizens to assess the performance of their elected representatives. If citizens are dissatisfied with their leaders’ actions or policies, they can vote them out of office in the next election. This creates an incentive for elected officials to be responsive to the needs and wishes of the populace, fostering accountability. Without elections, there would be no formal, peaceful way for citizens to remove unresponsive or corrupt leaders, leading to potential instability or authoritarianism.

Question 4.

What is a General Election?

Ans:

A general election is a regularly occurring electoral event in which the populace casts ballots to elect the majority, if not all, of the representatives within a nation’s principal legislative body, such as a parliament or congress. Occasionally, citizens also vote for other pivotal roles, like a president. This process serves as the fundamental mechanism through which a country establishes its leadership and constitutes its government, distinguishing itself from by-elections, which address isolated vacancies, or primary elections, which involve the selection of party nominees.

Question 5.

What is a By-Election?

Ans:

A by-election, known in some nations as a special election (United States) or bypoll (India), is an unscheduled electoral contest conducted to fill an elected position that has become vacant between regularly scheduled general elections.

This means that instead of a comprehensive election for numerous seats, a by-election is specifically convened when one or a limited number of seats become empty. The reasons for such vacancies are varied and can include: the resignation or death of the incumbent officeholder; the incumbent’s disqualification or removal due to factors like a criminal conviction, bankruptcy, or a successful recall effort; or the incumbent’s assumption of another role that renders them ineligible for their current seat, such as transitioning to a higher legislative body.

By-elections occur outside the standard electoral timetable, with their scheduling typically governed by the specific regulations and deadlines set by the relevant country’s or region’s electoral authority. Their scope is generally confined to the particular constituency or electoral district where the vacancy arose, rather than encompassing an entire nation or all electoral zones.

Despite their limited direct effect of filling a single seat, by-elections can carry substantial political weight. They frequently serve as an indicator of public sentiment, acting as a “mid-term examination” for the governing party or signaling potential shifts in political preferences. A robust performance by an opposition party in a by-election can suggest increasing public discontent with the government, even if it doesn’t immediately alter the overall power dynamics.

Question 6.

What is meant by Midterm-Election?

Ans:

Midterm elections, most notably in the U.S., occur roughly halfway through a chief executive’s term. While the president isn’t on the ballot, these elections are vital for shaping a nation’s political direction. In the U.S., they take place two years into a president’s four-year term, with all 435 House of Representatives seats and approximately one-third of the 100 Senate seats contested. Numerous state and local offices, like governorships and state legislative seats, are also decided.

The significance of midterms lies in their power to reshape the political landscape. The results determine the balance of power in the legislative branch. If the opposition gains control of Congress, it can lead to “gridlock,” hindering the president’s agenda.These outcomes also signal emerging political trends, influencing subsequent presidential election strategies.

Question 7.

What is meant by Direct Election?

Ans:

Direct election means that eligible voters directly cast their ballots for the candidates or political parties they want to see elected to office. There’s no intermediary body (like an electoral college or delegates) making the final selection on their behalf.

In essence, it’s a straightforward system where the people’s votes directly determine the outcome of an election.

Question 8.

What is Indirect Election?

Ans:

Instead, they elect a group of intermediaries (often called an electoral college or assembly), and these intermediaries then make the final selection.

This method is commonly used for positions like presidents (e.g., in the United States, India, and Germany) or members of upper legislative houses in some countries.

Question 9.

Name two bodies whose members are elected by Indirect Election.

Ans:

Both the French Senate and the Speaker of the Lok Sabha in India are examples of bodies or positions filled through indirect election. This process involves a group of pre-selected electors, rather than the general public, choosing the final representative.

The Senate in France 🇫🇷

Senators are not chosen by a direct public vote. Instead, they are selected by a large electoral college of approximately 150,000 “grand electors.” This group includes regional and municipal councilors, as well as members of the National Assembly. This system ensures that the Senate accurately represents the interests of local and regional governments throughout France.

The Lok Sabha Speaker in India 🇮🇳

The Speaker of the Lok Sabha in India is a key example of an indirectly elected position within a directly elected legislative body. While the general members of the Lok Sabha (the lower house of India’s Parliament) are chosen directly by the public, the Speaker is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha themselves. This means the individual in this role is chosen by the elected representatives of the people, rather than by a direct vote from the public. This process ensures that the Speaker has the confidence of the house they lead.

Question 10.

Mention one advantage and one disadvantage of Direct Election.

Ans:

Here’s one advantage and one disadvantage of direct election:

Advantage:

• Increased Legitimacy and Accountability: Direct elections directly connect the elected officials to the voters. This creates a strong sense of legitimacy, as the officials clearly derive their mandate from the people. It also enhances accountability, as voters can directly hold their representatives responsible for their actions and decisions at the ballot box.

Disadvantage:

• Voter Fatigue and Potential for Uninformed Decisions: In a system of frequent direct elections for many different positions or issues, voters can experience fatigue and become disengaged. This can lead to lower voter turnout. Additionally, complex policy issues may require in-depth knowledge, and expecting all citizens to be fully informed on every matter can lead to decisions based on emotion, limited information, or the influence of strong campaigns rather than thorough deliberation.

Question 11.

Mention one main advantage and one disadvantage of Indirect Election.

Ans:

Here’s one main advantage and one main disadvantage of indirect elections:

Advantage:

• Promotes Deliberation and Informed Choice: Indirect elections often involve a smaller body of electors (like an electoral college or parliamentary representatives) who are theoretically more informed about the candidates and issues. This can lead to more considered and less emotionally driven decisions, as these electors have a greater opportunity to scrutinize candidates’ qualifications and policy positions in detail. It’s argued that this process allows for a more “filtered” and thoughtful selection, rather than a direct mass appeal that might favor charisma over competence.

Disadvantage:

• Reduced Direct Accountability and Voter Disenfranchisement: A significant drawback is the diminished direct accountability of the elected official to the general populace. Since the public doesn’t directly vote for the final officeholder, there can be a disconnect between the will of the people and the ultimate outcome. This can lead to feelings of disenfranchisement among voters, as their individual vote may seem less impactful, and it can be harder for them to hold the elected official directly responsible for their actions. The electoral body acts as an intermediary, potentially diluting the direct link between the electorate and the elected.

Question 12.

Who appoints the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners?

Ans:

The new law governing the appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners (ECs) in India, the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023, has introduced a new two-tiered process to replace the previous system of presidential appointment on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers.

The New Appointment Process

The new process is a two-step procedure involving a Search Committee and a Selection Committee.

• Search Committee: This committee is responsible for shortlisting candidates. It is headed by the Minister of Law and Justice and includes two other members who are also Secretaries to the Government of India. Their role is to prepare a panel of up to five eligible candidates. To be eligible, a person must be serving as, or have been, a Secretary to the Government of India.
• Selection Committee: This committee makes the final recommendation to the President for the appointment. It is a three-member body comprising:
  • The Prime Minister of India (Chairperson).
  • If there is no recognized Leader of the Opposition, the leader of the single largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha takes this role.

While the Search Committee provides a list of candidates, the Selection Committee is not bound by this list and can recommend any other suitable individual. The final recommendation of this committee is then sent to the President for the formal appointment.

Historical and Legal Context

The 2023 Act was passed following a landmark Supreme Court ruling in March 2023. To ensure the independence of the Election Commission, the Supreme Court had mandated an interim selection committee composed of the Chief Justice of India, the Prime Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha. This was intended to be a temporary arrangement until Parliament enacted a new law.

However, the new 2023 Act replaced the Chief Justice of India with a Union Cabinet Minister, thereby giving the executive a two-to-one majority on the selection committee. This change has been a subject of criticism from opponents who argue that it compromises the Election Commission’s independence. Petitions have been filed in the Supreme Court challenging the constitutional validity of the new law.

Question 13.

Who acts as the Chairman of the Election Commission?

Ans:

Gyanesh Kumar is the Chief Election Commissioner of India.

Question 14.

What is the term of office of the Chief Election Commissioner?

Ans:

The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) of India’s tenure is a critical aspect of ensuring the independence and autonomy of the Election Commission of India (ECI). The terms of service for the CEC and other Election Commissioners are now governed by the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023.

Under this legislation, the CEC and other Election Commissioners hold office for a term of six years from the date they assume office, or until they reach the age of 65 years, whichever event occurs first. This fixed tenure is designed to protect the independence of the ECI by preventing the executive from removing an individual without a constitutionally defined process.

A key provision of the 2023 Act is that the CEC and other Election Commissioners are not eligible for re-appointment. Furthermore, if an Election Commissioner is appointed as the CEC, their total combined tenure in both roles cannot exceed six years. This measure ensures a consistent and predictable term limit, reinforcing the principle of impartiality.

Question 15.

The Chief Election Commissioner be removed from his office?

Ans:

Removing India’s Chief Election Commissioner

The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) of India holds a highly independent position, and their removal from office is a rigorous process designed to prevent executive interference, mirroring the procedure for a Supreme Court Judge.

A CEC can only be removed for “proved misbehavior” or “incapacity.” The process begins with a resolution in both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha). This resolution requires a special majority: more than half of the total membership of each House, and at least two-thirds of the members present and voting.

Once both Houses pass the resolution with this special majority, the President of India issues an order for the CEC’s removal. This stringent method highlights the constitutional commitment to safeguarding the Election Commission’s autonomy, ensuring fair and impartial elections. Unlike other Election Commissioners, who can be removed on the CEC’s recommendation, the CEC’s removal is a significantly more complex and difficult process.

Question 16.

Mention any two powers (functions) of the Election Commission.

Ans:

1. Conducting and Supervising Elections: The Election Commission is solely responsible for the entire process of conducting free and fair elections to the Parliament, State Legislative Assemblies, and the offices of the President and Vice-President. This includes fixing election schedules, notifying election dates, scrutinizing nomination papers, and overseeing the polling and counting of votes.
   
2. Recognizing Political Parties and Allotting Symbols: The Election Commission grants recognition to political parties (as national, state, or regional parties) and allot them unique election symbols. It also has the authority to settle disputes regarding party recognition and symbol allocation.

Question 17.

What is meant by a Single-Member Constituency?

Ans:

A single-member constituency designates an electoral division from which a sole representative is chosen to serve in a legislative body, such as a parliament or assembly. This model involves segmenting a larger region into numerous distinct zones, each of which functions as an independent electoral unit. Within each of these defined zones, eligible voters cast their ballots for one candidate among those vying for the seat. The candidate who secures the highest number of votes within that particular constituency is declared the victor, thereby gaining the right to represent that area. This approach fundamentally differs from multi-member constituencies, where a broader geographical area elects multiple representatives concurrently.

Question 18.

What is a Multi-Member Constituency?

Ans:

A multi-member constituency is an electoral district that elects multiple representatives to a legislative body, as opposed to a single-member constituency which elects only one. This system allows voters to choose several candidates to fill the available seats within a given district.

Multi-member constituencies are often a feature of electoral systems aiming for more proportional representation. The specific voting rules employed within these constituencies can influence their impact. For instance, depending on the system (e.g., party-list proportional representation, multi-member plurality with limited voting), they can potentially improve the representation of minority groups or smaller political parties by distributing seats in a way that more closely mirrors the overall distribution of votes.

Question 19.

What is meant by a Reserve Constituency?

Ans:

A Reserve Constituency is a special type of electoral district in a country, typically designed to ensure the representation of historically marginalized or underrepresented groups in the legislature. In such constituencies, only candidates belonging to a specific designated community or category are permitted to contest the elections. However, all eligible voters, regardless of their community, can cast their vote.

The primary purpose of reserve constituencies is to address historical injustices, overcome social barriers, and promote inclusivity in political decision-making. They aim to guarantee that certain groups, who might otherwise struggle to win elections due to societal discrimination, economic disadvantage, or numerical minority, have a voice and a share in the governance of the nation.

Key characteristics of Reserve Constituencies often include:

• Designated Category: A specific group (e.g., Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, women, or other backward classes) is identified for whose representation the constituency is reserved.
• Candidate Restriction: Only members of the designated category can stand for election from that constituency.
• Universal Adult Franchise for Voters: All registered voters within the constituency can cast their ballot, irrespective of their community or background.
• Periodic Review: The demarcation and reservation of such constituencies are often subject to periodic review by an independent body (like an Election Commission or Delimitation Commission) to ensure fairness and adjust to demographic changes.

Question 20.

Mention any two stages in the election process before the Election Campaign begins.

Ans:

After the announcement of the election schedule and the official notification for elections, two critical phases take place before the election campaign can properly start.

1. Filing of Nominations 

This phase is when prospective candidates formally submit their intention to contest an election. They must provide all the necessary documents to the Returning Officer by a specified deadline. The paperwork usually includes a candidate’s personal information, educational background, financial assets, and any criminal history. This process officially registers them for a particular seat.

2. Scrutiny of Nominations 

Following the filing period, the Returning Officer meticulously examines all the submitted nomination papers. This step is a check to ensure that every candidate fulfills the eligibility criteria required by law, such as minimum age and citizenship requirements. It also verifies that all the information provided is accurate and complete. Nominations that fail to meet these legal and procedural standards are rejected, leaving only the eligible candidates to move forward.

Question 21.

Mention any two techniques of Election Campaign.

Ans:

Here are two techniques of election campaigning, described uniquely:

1. Direct Voter Engagement (e.g., Canvassing and Rallies): This technique focuses on direct, often face-to-face, interaction with potential voters. Rallies, on the other hand, are larger, organized gatherings where candidates deliver speeches, present their vision, and energize their base. Both methods aim to build personal connections, disseminate information directly, and create a sense of community and enthusiasm around a candidate or party. The strength of this approach lies in its ability to foster trust and allow for immediate feedback and tailored messaging.
   
2. Digital Persuasion and Mobilization (e.g., Social Media Campaigns and Targeted Advertising): This modern technique leverages the internet and digital platforms to reach a vast audience efficiently. Social media campaigns involve creating engaging content (videos, infographics, posts) that highlight key policy positions, share candidate updates, and encourage interaction and sharing among followers. Targeted digital advertising uses data analytics to deliver specific messages to particular demographic groups or individuals based on their interests, online behavior, or geographic location. This allows campaigns to precisely tailor their messaging and reach undecided voters or motivate specific segments of their base, often with calls to action like registering to vote or donating to the campaign. Its effectiveness stems from its wide reach, cost-efficiency, and the ability to personalize and optimize messages in real-time.

Question 22.

What is an Election Manifesto? OR What is the use of an Election Manifesto?

Ans:

It serves as a detailed declaration of their policies, goals, and vision for the future if they are elected to power. Essentially, it’s a promise to the electorate, outlining what they intend to achieve and how they plan to address various issues facing the country or a specific constituency.

Here’s a breakdown of its uses:

• Communicating Vision and Policies: The primary use of a manifesto is to clearly articulate the party’s or candidate’s stance on key issues. This includes their plans for the economy, healthcare, education, social welfare, environment, foreign policy, and more. It gives voters a comprehensive understanding of their ideology and priorities.
• Informing and Educating Voters: Manifestos act as a vital source of information for the electorate. They allow voters to compare the proposals of different parties and candidates, helping them make informed decisions based on which vision aligns best with their own values and interests.
• Setting an Agenda: For the party or candidate, the manifesto serves as a roadmap and an agenda for their potential term in office. It outlines specific objectives and strategies, providing a framework for their future governance.
• Accountability and Scrutiny: Once a party or candidate is elected, their manifesto becomes a document against which their performance can be measured. Voters, the media, and opposition parties can hold them accountable for fulfilling the promises made in their manifesto.
• Mobilizing Support: A well-crafted manifesto can generate enthusiasm and support among potential voters. By addressing their concerns and offering solutions, it can convince them to vote for the party or candidate.
• Differentiating from Opponents: In a competitive election, the manifesto helps a party or candidate stand out from their rivals. It allows them to highlight their unique selling propositions and demonstrate why their approach is superior.
• Building Trust and Credibility: A clear, well-thought-out, and realistic manifesto can build trust with the electorate. It shows that the party or candidate has a concrete plan and has put considerable thought into governing.

Question 23.

What is a Secret Ballot?

Ans:

This system is designed to ensure political privacy and prevent any external influence on a voter’s decision.

Here’s a breakdown of its key aspects:

• Anonymity: The core principle is that no one can know how an individual voted. This is achieved through various means, such as voting booths that provide privacy, standardized ballot papers, and secure ballot boxes.
  1. Preventing Intimidation: Voters can cast their ballots without fear of retribution, harassment, or pressure from political parties, employers, or other influential groups.
  2. Eliminating Bribery and Vote Buying: Since it’s impossible to verify how a person voted, attempts to buy votes are rendered ineffective.
  3. Promoting Free and Fair Elections: By ensuring privacy, the secret ballot encourages voters to make their decisions based on their genuine convictions, rather than external pressures.
• How it works (typical process):
  1. Voters receive an official ballot paper, often printed at public expense and listing all candidates or proposals.
  2. They enter a private voting booth or enclosure.
  3. They mark their choices on the ballot, usually by checking a box or writing a name.
  4. The marked ballot is folded to conceal the vote.
  5. The folded ballot is placed into a sealed ballot box.
  6. The ballot box is later opened, and votes are counted without revealing individual voter identities.

Question 24.

Mention any two reasons why a Ballot Paper becomes invalid.

Ans:

Here are two distinct reasons why a ballot paper might be deemed invalid:

1. Improper Marking: If the voter marks the ballot paper in a way that doesn’t clearly indicate their choice, or marks it in multiple places for a single position where only one selection is allowed, it can be invalidated. This includes using unconventional symbols, writing outside designated areas, or making ambiguous marks that don’t conform to the prescribed method (e.g., ticking instead of an ‘X’ if ‘X’ is required, or marking multiple candidates when only one can be chosen). The ambiguity makes it impossible to ascertain the voter’s true intent.
   
2. Identification Marks/Tampering: A ballot paper will be invalidated if it contains any marks, writing, or alterations that could potentially identify the voter. This is a crucial measure to maintain the secrecy of the vote. Similarly, if the ballot paper appears to be tampered with, defaced intentionally, or is not the officially issued ballot paper (e.g., a counterfeit), it will be rejected to ensure the integrity of the election process.

Question 25.

What is the maximum limit of the expenses for a Parliamentary contest?

Ans:

In India, the Election Commission of India (ECI) sets expenditure limits for candidates contesting parliamentary elections (Lok Sabha constituencies). These limits vary based on the size and economic factors of the state or union territory.

As per the latest revisions, the maximum expenditure for a Lok Sabha constituency is ₹95 lakh for larger states. For smaller states and Union Territories, this limit is set at ₹75 lakh. These amounts are intended to cover all legitimate campaigning costs, including public meetings, rallies, advertisements, posters, banners, and transportation.

It’s crucial to understand that these expenditure caps apply exclusively to individual candidates. Currently, there are no legal limits on the amount of money political parties themselves can spend during elections in India.

To ensure transparency and accountability, candidates are mandated to maintain meticulous records of all their election expenses. This detailed account must cover the period from the date of their nomination until the declaration of results. This statement of expenditure must then be submitted to the Election Commission within 30 days of the election’s conclusion. Non-compliance with these regulations, such as exceeding the prescribed limits or submitting an inaccurate account, can lead to serious consequences, including disqualification of the candidate.

Question 26.

Mention any two measures that ensure that elections are free and fair in India.

Ans:

Here are two significant measures ensuring free and fair elections in India, presented concisely and uniquely:

1. Independent Election Commission of India (ECI): The ECI, a constitutional body, operates autonomously to oversee and regulate every aspect of the electoral process. Its powers include formulating voter lists, implementing a Model Code of Conduct to ensure ethical campaigning, scrutinizing election spending, and addressing electoral malpractices. This independence from political influence is paramount to maintaining an impartial and credible election system.
2. Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) with Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT): EVMs streamline the voting process and drastically reduce errors and fraud associated with traditional paper ballots. The integration of VVPAT systems provides an essential layer of transparency, allowing voters to visually confirm their vote on a printed slip before it’s securely stored. This dual-verification mechanism fosters public trust in the accuracy and integrity of election outcomes.

Question 27.

Mention any one measure that has been taken to discourage non-serious candidates from jumping into the election fray.

Ans:

One significant measure taken to discourage non-serious candidates from jumping into the election fray is the increase in the security deposit amount and the number of proposers required for nomination.

Previously, the security deposit was quite low, and the number of proposers (electors signing the nomination papers) was minimal. This made it easy for individuals to file nominations even without genuine intent to contest or a reasonable chance of winning. Such a large number of candidates would often complicate the election process, increase administrative burden, and sometimes be used by serious candidates to “cut” votes from rivals by fielding proxy candidates.

By increasing the security deposit, a financial deterrent is put in place, making it less appealing for individuals to file nominations without a serious commitment. Similarly, requiring a higher number of proposers ensures that a candidate has at least some grassroots support within the constituency before their nomination is accepted. These changes aim to filter out frivolous nominations and ensure that only genuinely interested and somewhat supported candidates enter the electoral race.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.
With reference to the composition of the Election Commission, explain the following:
(a) Appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners.
(b) Their Terms of Office and Conditions of Service.
Ans:

The Election Commission of India, an independent constitutional body responsible for election oversight, operates under a specific framework regarding its members.

(a) 

The President of India holds the authority to appoint the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and the other Election Commissioners (ECs). These appointments are made based on the recommendations of the Union Government. Currently, there isn’t a specific, codified legislative procedure outlining their selection process.

(b) Tenure and Service Conditions:

• Term Length: Both the Chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commissioners serve for a period of six years, or until they attain the age of 65, whichever comes first.
• Service Regulations: The President of India is responsible for establishing the terms and conditions of service for these officials. A key aspect of the CEC’s role is their robust security of tenure: they can only be removed from office through a procedure similar to that for a Supreme Court Judge, and on analogous grounds. This provision significantly strengthens the Chief Election Commissioner’s independence. In contrast, other Election Commissioners can only be removed upon the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner. Regarding compensation, their salaries and allowances are equivalent to those of a Supreme Court Judge.

Question 2.

What measures have been taken to ensure Independence of the Election Commission?

Ans:

Several measures have been taken to ensure its independence:

1. Constitutional Status: The ECI is directly established by Article 324 of the Indian Constitution, granting it inherent authority and insulation from executive interference.
   
2. Security of Tenure for CEC: The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) enjoys security of tenure and can only be removed from office in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Supreme Court judge (i.e., through impeachment by Parliament with a special majority for proved misbehavior or incapacity). This prevents removal based on the pleasure of the President or government.
   
3. Removal of Other Election Commissioners: Other Election Commissioners (ECs) and Regional Commissioners can only be removed from office on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner, providing a layer of protection against direct executive removal.
   
4. Fixed Term of Office: The CEC and ECs are appointed for a fixed term (six years or until they attain 65 years, whichever is earlier), preventing arbitrary curtailment of their tenure.
   
5. Service Conditions: The service conditions of the CEC and ECs cannot be varied to their disadvantage after their appointment, ensuring that their terms are not altered to pressure them.
   
6. Equal Powers of Commissioners: All Election Commissioners (CEC and ECs) have equal powers, and decisions are made by a majority vote, ensuring collective decision-making and preventing a single individual from being easily influenced.
   
7. Control over Election Machinery: During elections, the ECI has extensive control over the administrative machinery, including the power to transfer officials and take action against those failing to act impartially.

Question 3.

With reference to the powers and functions of the Election Commission, discuss the following:

(a) Preparation of the Electoral Roll

(b) Recognition of Political Parties

(c) Allotment of Symbols

Ans:

Its core functions include:

(a) Preparation of the Electoral Roll: The ECI is responsible for creating and maintaining accurate voter lists. This involves registering eligible citizens (18+), regularly updating the rolls by adding new voters and removing deceased/shifted individuals, and correcting errors. Transparency is ensured by publishing draft rolls for public review and objections, minimizing inaccuracies.

(b) Recognition of Political Parties: The ECI grants “National” or “State” party status based on electoral performance (vote share, seats won). This recognition offers significant benefits, including exclusive election symbols, free airtime on public broadcasters, free access to electoral rolls, and more star campaigners. The ECI also monitors parties for continued compliance.

(c) Allotment of Symbols: Election symbols are crucial for voter identification, especially in a diverse nation like India. The ECI provides unique symbols to unrecognised parties and independent candidates, while recognized parties receive reserved symbols. The process is fair, with clear procedures for resolving symbol disputes, including those arising from party splits, where the ECI’s decision is final and impactful.

Question 4.

Elections are the barometer of democracy. In this context mention any four measures that have been taken to ensure free and fair elections in India ?

Ans:

India, as the world’s largest democracy, employs several vital measures to uphold free and fair elections:

1. Independent Election Commission of India (ECI): This autonomous constitutional body oversees the entire electoral process. Its independence is safeguarded by the appointment and removal procedures of its members, ensuring impartiality.
   
2. Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT): EVMs enhance voting efficiency, accuracy, and transparency by minimizing malpractices like booth capturing. VVPATs further boost transparency by allowing voters to verify their vote via a printed slip, providing an auditable record.
   
3. Model Code of Conduct (MCC): Enforced by the ECI, the MCC is a set of agreed-upon guidelines for political parties and candidates, effective from election announcement to results. It curtails unethical practices like hate speeches and misuse of government resources, with ECI taking action against violations.
   
4. Electoral Photo Identity Cards (EPICs) and Updated Electoral Rolls: EPICs (Voter IDs) prevent impersonation. Regular updates to electoral rolls ensure an accurate voter list, facilitated by online services for new registrations and changes.

Question 5.

With reference to powers and functions of the Election Commission, discuss the following:

(a) Conduct of Elections

(b) Ensuring Free and Fair Elections

Ans:

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a constitutional body established under Article 324, primarily responsible for the superintendence, direction, and control of elections. Its powers and functions are crucial for maintaining the democratic fabric of the country.

Here’s a concise discussion on the Election Commission’s role in the conduct of elections and ensuring free and fair elections:

(a) Conduct of Elections

The ECI is vested with extensive powers to manage every aspect of the electoral process, from start to finish. This includes:

• Preparation and Revision of Electoral Rolls: The ECI is responsible for preparing and continuously updating the voter lists, ensuring that all eligible citizens are registered and that there are no duplicate or erroneous entries. This forms the fundamental basis for any election.
• Delimitation of Constituencies: Based on parliamentary acts, the ECI determines the territorial boundaries of electoral constituencies to ensure fair representation and population parity.
• Notification of Election Schedules: The Commission sets the dates and schedules for all elections, including the notification, filing of nominations, scrutiny of papers, campaigning, polling, counting of votes, and declaration of results.
• Recognition of Political Parties and Allotment of Symbols: The ECI grants recognition to political parties (national or state) based on their electoral performance and allots unique election symbols to them, which is especially vital in a country with varied literacy levels.
• Appointment of Election Machinery: It appoints various officers for election duty, including Chief Electoral Officers, District Election Officers, Returning Officers, and Electoral Registration Officers, to manage the process at different levels.
• Arrangement of Polling Stations and Counting Centres: The ECI decides on the location of polling stations, assigns voters to them, and makes arrangements for counting centres, ensuring their proper functioning and security.
• Deployment of Security Forces: The Commission has the authority to request and deploy law enforcement agencies to maintain law and order during the election period, ensuring a peaceful and secure environment for voters and candidates.
• Use of Technology: The ECI has embraced technology like Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) systems to enhance efficiency, reduce errors, and increase transparency in the voting and counting process.

(b) Ensuring Free and Fair Elections

Beyond simply conducting elections, a primary mandate of the ECI is to ensure that these elections are free from any undue influence, coercion, or malpractice, thereby upholding the purity and integrity of the democratic process. This involves:

• Regulation of Election Expenditure: To create a level playing field and prevent the influence of “money power,” the ECI sets limits on campaign expenditure for candidates and parties and monitors their financial disclosures. They appoint expenditure observers to keep a check on illegal expenses.
• Preventing Electoral Malpractices: The ECI has the power to cancel or countermand elections in cases of grave irregularities such as booth capturing, rigging, violence, or large-scale voter bribery.
• Advisory Role: The ECI advises the President and Governors on matters related to the disqualification of Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs), respectively. This helps in maintaining the integrity of elected representatives.
• Dispute Resolution: It acts as a quasi-judicial body to settle disputes concerning the recognition of political parties and the allotment of election symbols, ensuring impartial decisions.
• Voter Education and Awareness: The ECI conducts awareness campaigns to educate voters about their rights and responsibilities, the importance of voting, and the electoral process itself, thereby promoting informed participation.
• Transparency and Accountability: Through various measures like appointing independent observers, using EVMs with VVPATs, and ensuring the presence of political representatives during counting, the ECI strives for maximum transparency and accountability in the electoral process.

Additional Questions

Short Answer Questions.

Question 1.
What is meant by an election ?
Ans:

Elections serve as the bedrock of modern democratic governance, offering a structured and formalized avenue for a populace to collectively determine its leadership or endorse policy initiatives through the act of voting. They are foundational to representative democracies, empowering citizens to select their representatives and ensure their accountability.

This entails several key aspects:

Structured Framework: Elections operate within a defined legal and procedural framework, encompassing elements from voter registration to the meticulous counting of ballots, all designed to uphold principles of fairness, openness, and legitimacy.

Collective Choice through Ballots: At its heart, an election is a process where individuals cast votes to express their preference for a candidate or a particular policy proposal.

Selection of Officeholders: The primary objective of most elections is to identify individuals who will serve as representatives within various governmental tiers, including legislative bodies (parliaments, assemblies), executive roles (presidents, prime ministers, governors), and sometimes even judicial positions.

Mechanism for Accountability: Elections provide a vital means for citizens to hold their elected officials responsible. Should leaders fail to meet the electorate’s expectations, voters possess the authority to replace them in subsequent electoral cycles.

Ensuring Legitimacy and Order: By deriving authority from the consent of the governed, elections bestow legitimacy upon those in power. This process significantly contributes to the stability of the political system by offering a peaceful and organized method for the transfer of authority.

Engaging in Civic Life: Elections represent a fundamental form of political engagement, enabling citizens to articulate their views, influence public policy, and foster a sense of connection to their political community.

Platform for Discourse: Election campaigns serve as a crucial forum where diverse candidates and parties articulate their ideas, policy proposals, and future visions. This fosters widespread public discussion and debate on critical societal matters.

Question 2.

Under which method of elections are the elections to Lok Sabha held ?

Ans:

The Indian Lok Sabha elections utilize the First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) system, also known as a simple plurality system. This electoral framework operates through the following mechanisms:

• Constituency Delineation: India is divided into numerous geographical areas termed constituencies. Each constituency is designed to elect a single representative to the Lok Sabha.
  
• Direct Electorate Engagement: Representatives are chosen through direct popular vote, facilitated by universal adult suffrage, which ensures all eligible adult citizens of India have the right to vote.
  
• Singular Representation: A core feature of this system is that each constituency is represented by only one elected member.
  
• Plurality-Based Outcome: The determining factor for victory is a simple plurality of votes. The candidate who secures the greatest number of votes within a given constituency is declared the winner. It is not mandatory for the winning candidate to achieve an absolute majority (i.e., more than 50% of the total votes); instead, they simply need to accumulate more votes than any other individual candidate.

Question 3.

Name the system of election to the office of the President of India.

Ans:

Proportional Representation by means of the Single Transferable Vote.

Question 4.

What is meant by a by-election ?

Ans:

A by-election serves as an interim electoral process to fill a vacant political office that arises outside the standard cycle of general elections.

Here’s a closer look at its key characteristics:

• Emergence of a Vacancy: A seat becomes empty due to unforeseen circumstances, such as the incumbent’s resignation, demise, removal from office, or even if they secure a different political appointment necessitating their departure from the current role.
• Inter-General Election Timing: Unlike general elections, which are pre-determined, widespread electoral events, a by-election is an ad-hoc occurrence, specifically timed to address the immediate need of the vacancy.
• Focused Contest: While general elections encompass a multitude of electoral races, a by-election is singularly dedicated to filling the one specific vacant position.

Consider it akin to an immediate substitute being called up in a sports team when a player is unexpectedly unavailable, rather than waiting for the next scheduled team selection. This mechanism ensures continuous representation for a constituency or region, preventing prolonged periods without a dedicated officeholder until the subsequent general election.

Question 5.

Who allots the symbols to political parties ?

Ans:

The Election Commission of India (ECI) possesses the sole power to assign symbols to political parties within the nation. This authority is derived from the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order of 1968, a directive issued by the ECI under the purview of Article 324 of the Indian Constitution.

A key responsibility of the ECI is to guarantee that every recognized political party—be it a National or State party—is allotted a unique “reserved” symbol exclusively for its use. For political parties that are registered but not recognized, as well as for independent candidates, the ECI provides a range of “free” symbols from which they can select.

Question 6.

When is a mid-term election held ?

Ans:

Mid-term elections represent a specific type of general election that occurs roughly midway through the tenure of an executive leader.

A prominent example of this electoral dynamic is observed in the United States. Given the four-year presidential term, midterm elections are consistently scheduled biennially. These elections are held on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November, precisely two years into a president’s term. During these crucial electoral exercises, the electorate casts votes for a range of positions:

• House of Representatives: All 435 seats in the House of Representatives are up for grabs, as representatives serve two-year terms.
• State and Local Offices: A multitude of state and local positions are also decided, encompassing governors, state legislators, and various other subnational officeholders.

Question 7.

Who appoints the Election Commissioners ?

Ans:

Prior to the enactment of The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023, the appointment of Election Commissioners in India rested solely with the President, acting on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers.

However, the 2023 Act introduced a significant change by establishing a structured selection process. Under the new legislation, while the President of India continues to formally appoint the Election Commissioners, this appointment is now contingent upon the recommendation of a dedicated Selection Committee.

This committee comprises three members:

• The Prime Minister, who serves as the Chairperson.
• The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha (House of the People).
• A Union Cabinet Minister, specifically nominated by the Prime Minister.

This revised mechanism aims to ensure a more deliberative and consultative approach to the appointment of Election Commissioners, departing from the previous system where the executive held more direct sway.

Question 8.

What is the normal term of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners ?

Ans:

The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners (ECs) in India serve a fixed term of six years, or until they reach the age of 65, whichever event occurs first. This tenure framework is officially laid out in the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023.

A key aspect of this arrangement is that re-appointment to these positions is generally not permitted. Furthermore, if an individual transitions from an Election Commissioner to the Chief Election Commissioner, their cumulative service in both roles cannot extend beyond a total of six years.

Question 9.

Name two important powers and functions of the Election Commission.

Ans:

Its core functions revolve around two primary areas: managing elections and regulating political entities.

In election management, the ECI oversees the entire electoral cycle for the Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, and presidential/vice-presidential elections. This includes maintaining accurate voter rolls, setting election schedules (nominations, voting, results), arranging polling and counting logistics, and deploying election personnel.

Regarding regulation, the ECI recognizes political parties, allocates symbols, and resolves related disputes. Crucially, it enforces the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) to ensure fair elections by preventing malpractices and misuse of state resources. The ECI has the power to penalize violations, including candidate disqualification.

Question 10.

Name one advisory function of the Election Compassion.

Ans:

The Election Commission provides advice to the President on questions of disqualification of Members of Parliament.

Question 11.

What is known as the Voters List ? Who prepares it ?

Ans:

The Voters List, also known as the Electoral Roll or Voters’ Register, is a comprehensive record of all individuals who are registered and eligible to vote in a particular election or jurisdiction. It contains vital information about each voter, such as their name, age, gender, address, and assigned polling station, allowing election officials to confirm eligibility and ensure a fair voting process.

In India, the Election Commission of India (ECI) is primarily responsible for preparing and maintaining the Voters List. They conduct regular revisions and updates to ensure its accuracy, adding new eligible voters and removing those who have passed away or moved. While the ECI prepares the electoral rolls for parliamentary and state assembly elections, State Election Commissions are responsible for local body elections, often utilizing the ECI’s data as a base.

Question 12.

What is the need for elections ?

Ans:

Elections are fundamental to modern representative democracies because direct participation by all citizens in every decision is impractical. Here’s a brief overview of why they are essential:

• Representation: Elections allow citizens to choose individuals who will represent their interests and make decisions on their behalf in government.
• Accountability: They provide a mechanism to hold elected officials responsible for their actions. If representatives fail to perform, citizens can vote them out in the next election.
• Legitimacy: Elections legitimize the government by ensuring that those in power have been chosen by the will of the people.
• Peaceful Transition of Power: They offer a structured and peaceful way to change leadership, preventing conflict and instability.
• Citizen Participation and Voice: Elections enable citizens to express their opinions, choose the policies that will guide the government, and feel involved in the political process.

Question 13.

Define the term Constituency. Name the types of constituencies.

Ans:

A constituency (also known as an electoral district) is a geographically defined area from which voters elect a representative (or representatives) to a legislative body, such as a parliament or assembly. Essentially, it’s a specific region carved out for electoral purposes, ensuring that people in different areas have their voices heard through their chosen representative.

The main types of constituencies are:

1. Single-member constituencies: In this type, only one representative is elected from each constituency. This is common in “first-past-the-post” electoral systems, where the candidate with the most votes wins.
   
2. Multi-member constituencies: Here, multiple representatives are elected from a single constituency. This system is often used in proportional representation systems, where seats are allocated based on the percentage of votes received by parties.

Question 14.

What is the main purpose of allotting symbols to political parties ?

Ans:

The main purpose of allotting symbols to political parties is to facilitate voter identification and simplify the electoral process, especially for illiterate or semi-literate voters.

These symbols act as a visual shorthand, allowing voters to easily recognize and choose their preferred party or candidate on the ballot paper, even if they cannot read the names. It ensures accessibility and fairness in democratic elections.

Question 15.

Mention two functions of the Returning Officer.

Ans:

Here are two key functions of a Returning Officer:

1. Overseeing the Nomination Process: The Returning Officer is responsible for receiving and scrutinizing the nomination papers of candidates, ensuring they meet all legal requirements. They decide on the validity of these nominations.
   
2. Managing Vote Counting and Declaration of Results: They supervise the entire process of counting votes after polling, ensuring fairness and transparency. Ultimately, they declare the election results for their constituency.

Question 16.

What is meant by the term ‘election by secret ballot’ ?

Ans:

The term ‘election by secret ballot’ refers to a voting method where the choices made by individual voters are kept confidential and cannot be linked back to them. This anonymity is crucial for ensuring free and fair elections, as it protects voters from any form of coercion, intimidation, blackmail, or undue influence.

Here’s a breakdown of what it means:

• Anonymity of the Voter: The core principle is that no one, not even election officials, should be able to determine how a specific individual voted.
• Privacy in Voting: Voters are provided with a private space (like a voting booth) to mark their ballot, preventing others from seeing their choices.
• Untraceable Ballots: The ballot papers themselves are designed without any identifying marks or numbers that could trace them back to a particular voter. Once cast into a ballot box, all ballots are mixed, making it impossible to ascertain individual votes during counting.
• Prevention of Undue Influence: By ensuring secrecy, the system aims to eliminate external pressures like:
  • Intimidation: Voters are less likely to be threatened or coerced if their vote cannot be revealed.
  • Bribery/Vote Buying: There’s no way for someone to verify if a voter followed through on a “deal” if the vote is secret.
  • Blackmail: No one can use a voter’s choice against them if it remains unknown.
• Freedom of Choice: Ultimately, the secret ballot empowers voters to cast their vote according to their genuine will and conscience, without fear of reprisal or social pressure.

Question 17.

What is called the ‘simple majority’ ?

Ans:

The term ‘simple majority’ refers to a voting requirement where a proposition passes if it receives more than 50% of the votes cast by those members who are present and voting in a given legislative body or group.

Here’s a breakdown of what that means:

• Present and Voting: This is crucial. It doesn’t consider the total strength of the house or any absent members. Only those who are physically present and actively casting a “yes” or “no” vote are counted. Abstentions (members present but choosing not to vote) are generally excluded from this calculation.
• More than 50%: If there are 100 members present and voting, a simple majority would be 51 votes (more than half). If there are 99 members present and voting, a simple majority would be 50 votes (again, more than half of 49.5, rounded up).

Key characteristics of a simple majority:

• Most Common: It’s the most frequently used type of majority in many parliamentary systems for various routine legislative and procedural matters.
• Flexibility: It allows decisions to be made relatively easily, as it doesn’t require a consensus from a large number of members.
• Examples of use: In India, for instance, a simple majority is used for:
  • Passing ordinary bills, money bills, and financial bills.
  • Approving motions like Adjournment Motions, No-Confidence Motions, and Censure Motions.
  • Declaring financial emergencies or President’s Rule in a state.
  • Electing the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha.

Question 18.

When is a vote declared invalid and not counted ?

Ans:

A vote is invalidated when it doesn’t meet legal election rules. Common reasons include:

• Improper Marking: Unclear voter intent, prohibited identifying marks, or incorrect use of marking methods.
• Ballot Damage/Tampering: Defaced ballots or evidence of fraudulent alterations.
• Unauthorized Ballot: Use of non-official ballot paper or casting a duplicate vote.
• Voter Discrepancies: Ballots from unregistered, impersonating, or deceased voters.
• Over/Undervoting: Marking too many choices (overvote, often invalidating only that contest) or too few/none (undervote, usually not counted for that specific contest).

Question 19.

What is meant by an election petition ?

Ans:

An election petition is a formal legal challenge lodged in court to contest an election’s outcome. It serves as a judicial review mechanism for candidates or voters who believe the election was not conducted fairly or lawfully. Common grounds for such a petition include allegations of corrupt practices, wrongful acceptance or rejection of nominations, irregularities during voting or counting, the winning candidate’s disqualification, or significant non-compliance with electoral laws.

Question 20.

When is repoll at a booth held ?

Ans:

A repoll at a polling booth is held when the Election Commission of India (ECI) declares the original poll at that location void. This typically happens due to serious irregularities that undermine the fairness and integrity of the election process. Common reasons include:

• Booth Capturing/Rigging: Unlawful seizure of a polling station by individuals who then cast votes illegally or prevent legitimate voters from exercising their franchise.
• Damage/Loss of EVMs/Polling Material: Accidental or intentional destruction, loss, or tampering with Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) or essential polling documents like the voter register (Form 17-A).
• Violence or Disruption: Widespread violence, riots, or other disruptions that prevent a significant number of voters from casting their votes peacefully.
• Technical Malfunction: Persistent mechanical failure of EVMs that significantly delays or prevents voting for an extended period.
• Breach of Secrecy: Incidents where the confidentiality of votes is compromised, for example, if a voter’s choice becomes public.
• Natural Calamity: Severe natural disasters that make it impossible to conduct polling safely or effectively.

Question 21.

State one limitation of democracy in respect of elections.

Ans:

A key vulnerability within democratic electoral systems lies in their susceptibility to the sway of financial power and entrenched special interests.

While the bedrock principle of elections posits equitable citizen engagement, the lived reality often reveals a disproportional impact from affluent individuals, corporate entities, and potent lobbying organizations. These well-resourced players can exert considerable influence over election campaigns, shape public discourse through media narratives, and ultimately steer policy formation. This dynamic can inadvertently foster an environment where candidates with superior financial backing, rather than those most qualified or representative of the populace, gain ascendancy. Consequently, the perspectives and genuine needs of everyday citizens risk being sidelined or even silenced in the face of such concentrated influence.

Question 22.

Name one important duty of an enlightened electorate.

Ans:

A hallmark of a truly engaged citizenry is the ability to dissect information and arrive at conclusions based on reason, rather than succumbing to eloquent persuasion, falsehoods, or personal prejudices.

This translates into several key practices:

• Actively pursuing varied and trustworthy information streams: Moving beyond the echo chambers of social media or sources that simply affirm existing viewpoints.
• Deeply understanding complex matters and proposed policies: Eschewing superficial summaries to grasp the intricacies and potential ripple effects of different initiatives.
• Thoroughly examining the objectives and histories of candidates: Evaluating their suitability, past conduct, and the congruence between their declared stances and their actual performance.
• Identifying and rejecting manipulative strategies: Remaining vigilant against political oratory, appeals to emotion, and deliberate distortions of reality.
• Pondering the wider consequences: Reflecting on how a decision at the ballot box will resonate not only for oneself but for one’s community, country, and globally.

Question 23.

What is meant by Elections? Mention any one principle according to which elections are conducted in a democracy.

Ans:

What is Meant by Elections?

Elections are a formal and organized process through which a population chooses individuals to represent them in public office or to make decisions on political propositions.Citizens cast their votes to select leaders for various positions, such as in the legislature, executive, or local government, thereby expressing their collective will and granting legitimacy to those in power. Elections serve as a cornerstone of democratic governance, allowing for peaceful transfers of power, holding leaders accountable, and providing a platform for public discourse on critical issues.

One Principle of Democratic Elections:

One fundamental principle according to which elections are conducted in a democracy is Universal and Equal Suffrage.

This principle dictates that every adult citizen, regardless of their social status, ethnicity, gender, religion, level of education, property ownership, or any other personal characteristic, has the right to vote. Furthermore, it ensures that every vote cast carries equal weight and value. This means that a vote from the wealthiest or most powerful person in a country counts exactly the same as a vote from any other citizen. This principle is crucial for upholding equality and ensuring that the government’s authority is truly based on the will of the entire populace, not just a privileged few. 

Question 24.

Who can become a Voter in India?

Ans:

To become a voter in India, a person must meet the following key eligibility criteria:

1. Citizenship: They must be a citizen of India.
2. Age: They must be at least 18 years old on the “qualifying date” (usually January 1st of the year the electoral roll is revised).
3. Ordinary Resident: They must be an “ordinary resident” of the constituency or polling area where they wish to be registered. This means they normally live there.
4. No Disqualification: They must not be disqualified from voting under any law (e.g., due to unsound mind as declared by a competent court, certain criminal convictions, or being in prison).

Question 25.

Mention any one advantage of Elections.

Ans:

One key advantage of elections is that they provide a peaceful and legitimate mechanism for transferring power. Instead of resorting to force or revolution, citizens can express their will through the ballot box, ensuring a stable and accepted change in leadership.

Question 26.

What is a General Election?

Ans:

A general election is a nationwide vote to select most or all members of a country’s primary legislative body, such as a parliament or congress, and potentially a president. These elections happen at fixed, constitutionally set times, differing from by-elections which fill single vacancies. Their aim is to form the government and express the public’s collective choice.

Question 27.

What is a By-Election?

Ans:

Its purpose is to fill a political office in a specific district that has become vacant due to circumstances such as the incumbent’s death, resignation, disqualification, or removal. These elections feature condensed campaigns and typically see reduced voter participation. Despite their localized nature, by-elections are important indicators of evolving public sentiment, can influence a government’s legislative control, and serve as trial grounds for new political strategies.

Question 28.

What is meant by Midterm-Election?

Ans:

A midterm election is a nationwide vote that occurs approximately halfway through a chief executive’s term. While the top office isn’t contested, these elections are crucial because they determine the composition of the legislature and other subnational government positions.

U.S. Context

In the U.S., midterm elections take place two years into a president’s four-year term. Additionally, numerous state and local offices, including many governorships, are on the ballot.

Significance

Midterm elections are often seen as a referendum on the current administration’s performance. The results can significantly shift the balance of power in Congress. If the opposing party gains a majority, it can create legislative gridlock for the president’s agenda. Historically, the president’s party tends to lose seats in Congress during midterms, which can be an early indicator of public sentiment and future political trends.

Question 29.

What is meant by Direct Election?

Ans:

A direct election empowers voters to directly choose their preferred candidate or political party for a specific office, with their ballots directly determining the winner. This method bypasses any intermediate bodies, such as an electoral college or chosen delegates, ensuring the popular vote directly translates into the election outcome. It stands in contrast to indirect elections, where citizens elect representatives who then make the final selection for the office.

Question 30.

What is Indirect Election?

Ans:

An indirect election is an electoral system where citizens do not directly vote for the final officeholder. Instead, they vote for a group of electors or representatives, who are then responsible for choosing the person for the office. This multi-stage process is different from a direct election, where voters cast their ballots for the candidates themselves.

Purpose of Indirect Elections

The rationale behind using an indirect election system often includes:

• Ensuring broader representation: This method can give more influence to smaller or less populous regions that might be overshadowed by larger states in a direct popular vote.
• Encouraging deliberation: The representatives or electors can engage in a more informed and considered selection process than the general public.
• Preventing “tyranny of the majority”: By filtering the popular vote through an electoral college, the system can prevent a candidate from winning simply by gaining a large majority in a few densely populated areas.

A well-known example of an indirect election is the U.S. Presidential election, where citizens vote for electors who constitute the Electoral College, and it’s this body that ultimately elects the President.

Question 31.

Name two bodies whose members are elected by Indirect Election.

Ans:

Here are two Indian governmental bodies whose members are chosen through an indirect election system:

1. The President of India’s Office: The country’s highest officeholder is decided by an Electoral College. This body comprises elected representatives from both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha (the two houses of the Indian Parliament), along with elected members from the Legislative Assemblies of all states and Union Territories.
   
2. The Rajya Sabha (Council of States): The bulk of the members in this upper chamber of the Indian Parliament are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of their respective states and Union Territories.

Question 32.

Mention one advantage and one disadvantage of Direct Election.

Ans:

Here’s one advantage and one disadvantage of direct elections, unique and without plagiarism:

Advantage:

• Enhanced Democratic Legitimacy and Accountability: Direct elections empower the populace by allowing them to directly choose their representatives. This fosters a strong sense of ownership and legitimacy for the elected officials, as their mandate comes straight from the voters. Consequently, representatives are often perceived as more directly accountable to the electorate, as their political future hinges on satisfying the will of the people who directly voted them into office.

Disadvantage:

• Susceptibility to Populism and Short-Term Thinking: Direct elections can sometimes be vulnerable to populist appeals and emotional rhetoric, potentially leading to the election of charismatic figures who might not possess the necessary experience or implement well-thought-out long-term policies. Voters, particularly in large and diverse electorates, may be swayed by simplified slogans or immediate gratification promises, rather than engaging with complex issues or considering the long-term implications of their choices, which could result in less stable or effective governance.

Question 33.

Mention one main advantage and one disadvantage of Indirect Election.

Ans:

Indirect elections, while less common for direct legislative representation in many modern democracies, offer distinct advantages and disadvantages:

Main Advantage: Thoughtful and Deliberative Choice (Filtering for Expertise/Experience)

One primary advantage of indirect elections is that they can lead to a more thoughtful and deliberative selection of officeholders. When an electoral college or a body of elected representatives makes the final choice, it’s argued that they are better positioned to:

• Consider complex qualifications: They may possess more in-depth knowledge of the candidates’ experience, policy positions, and suitability for the role, especially for highly specialized or ceremonial offices.
• Prioritize long-term vision over short-term populism: Representatives, being more removed from immediate popular pressures, might be inclined to choose candidates who embody stability, expertise, or a long-term vision for the nation, rather than those who simply appeal to popular sentiment at a given moment.
• Promote consensus and national unity: In diverse or fragmented societies, an indirect election can help foster a broader consensus among different political factions or regions, as representatives from various backgrounds come together to make a collective decision.

Main Disadvantage: Reduced Direct Accountability and Potential for Disconnect

The most significant disadvantage of indirect elections is the reduced direct accountability to the general populace and the potential for a disconnect between the voters’ will and the final outcome. This can manifest in several ways:

• Weakened popular mandate: Since citizens don’t directly vote for the ultimate officeholder, the perception of a strong popular mandate can be diminished. This can lead to questions about the legitimacy of the officeholder, especially if their election goes against the popular vote of the citizens who elected the initial representatives.
• Voter disengagement: Voters may feel their individual vote has less direct impact on the final outcome, potentially leading to lower voter turnout or a sense of apathy in the initial election of representatives.
• “Kingmakers” scenario: The intermediary electors can become “kingmakers,” with their individual choices or the internal dynamics of their small group outweighing the broader preferences expressed by the general electorate. This can make the process vulnerable to backroom deals, horse-trading, or influence from special interests that might not align with the public good.

Question 34.

What is meant by a Single-Member Constituency?

Ans:

A single-member constituency, also known as a single-member district, defines an electoral region from which only one representative is chosen for a legislative body. This system is central to electoral models like “First Past the Post” (FPTP) or “plurality” systems.

Key characteristics and implications include:

• Exclusive Representation: Each geographical constituency elects only one individual to the legislative assembly or council.
• Plurality Victory: Under systems such as FPTP, the candidate with the highest number of votes in that specific constituency wins, irrespective of whether they secure an absolute majority (over 50%) of the votes.
• Direct Constituency Connection: Advocates suggest this setup fosters a strong relationship between the elected representative and their local voters. Constituents have a clear understanding of who represents them, and the representative is directly answerable to their specific geographical area, promoting attention to local concerns and services.
• Propensity for Two-Party Dominance: Single-member constituencies, particularly with FPTP, often lead to the emergence of two primary political parties. This aligns with Duverger’s Law, as smaller parties face challenges in securing seats because they must win outright in individual constituencies rather than accumulating votes proportionally.
• Risk of Disproportionate Outcomes: A party might secure a substantial number of legislative seats with less than half of the national popular vote, or even fewer national votes than opponents, yet gain more seats. This occurs because votes for unsuccessful candidates in each constituency do not contribute to overall party representation, effectively becoming “wasted.”
• Gerrymandering Vulnerability: The demarcation of constituency boundaries (delimitation) holds significant sway in single-member systems. This can facilitate “gerrymandering,” where boundaries are manipulated to favor one political party, potentially diminishing the influence of particular voter demographics.
• Encouragement of Strategic Voting: Voters may engage in “tactical” or “strategic” voting, opting for a candidate they don’t fully support but who stands a better chance of defeating a candidate they strongly oppose, rather than voting for their preferred but unlikely-to-win choice.

Question 35.

What is a Multip-Member Constituency?

Ans:

A multi-member constituency designates an electoral region from which two or more representatives are chosen for a legislative assembly, diverging from a single-member district that elects only one. Instead of selecting a sole individual, voters within these constituencies choose several officials to represent their area. The precise method for electing these multiple representatives can differ based on the electoral system employed, such as block voting or various forms of proportional representation. The underlying principle of multi-member constituencies is often to foster a more equitable representation of diverse political stances or population segments within a district, enabling votes from even smaller groups to contribute to the election of at least one representative, a departure from the winner-takes-all nature of single-member systems.

Question 36.

What is meant by a Reserve Constituency?

Ans:

A Reserved Constituency refers to an electoral district in which a seat in a legislative body is set aside specifically for a candidate belonging to certain historically disadvantaged communities. The purpose of these constituencies is to ensure adequate representation for groups that might otherwise struggle to win elections due to their socio-economic status, historical marginalization, or lack of resources.

In India, this system is primarily implemented for:

• Scheduled Castes (SCs): These are communities that have historically faced severe discrimination and untouchability.
• Scheduled Tribes (STs): These are indigenous communities that often live in remote areas and have distinct cultural identities.

Key characteristics of a Reserved Constituency:

• Candidate Restriction: Only a person belonging to the designated reserved category (e.g., Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe) can contest the election from that particular constituency.
• Universal Adult Franchise: While the candidates must belong to the reserved category, all eligible voters residing in that constituency, regardless of their own caste or tribe, have the right to vote for the reserved candidate. There is no separate electorate based on caste.
• Proportional Representation (in principle): The number of seats reserved for SCs and STs in legislative bodies (like the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies) is generally proportionate to their population share in that state or the country.
• Purpose: The primary objective is to empower these communities by guaranteeing their presence in the political decision-making process, thereby enabling them to voice their concerns and contribute to policies that address their specific needs.
• Periodic Delimitation: The specific constituencies designated as “reserved” are not permanently fixed. They are identified and rotated periodically by a Delimitation Commission, which redraws electoral boundaries based on population data from the latest census, ensuring that the reservation system remains fair and reflective of demographic changes.

Question 37.

Who appoints the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners?

Ans:

This influential committee comprises:

• The Prime Minister, who serves as the chairperson.
• The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha (or, if there’s no officially recognized Leader of the Opposition, the leader of the largest opposition party within the Lok Sabha).
• A Union Cabinet Minister, specifically nominated by the Prime Minister.

Question 38.

Who acts as the Chairman of the Election Commission?

Ans:

In India, the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) acts as the Chairman of the Election Commission.

The Election Commission of India is a multi-member body, currently consisting of the Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. While all three have equal powers in decision-making (with decisions being taken by majority vote), the Chief Election Commissioner serves as the head or chairman of this body.

Question 39.

What is the term of office of the Chief Election Commissioner?

Ans:

This defined tenure is a crucial provision aimed at safeguarding the autonomy and neutrality of the Election Commission.

A key stipulation is that the Chief Election Commissioner is not eligible for reappointment. Furthermore, if an existing Election Commissioner is promoted to the role of Chief Election Commissioner, their cumulative service in both capacities is capped at a maximum of six years.

Question 40.

How can the Chief Election Commissioner be removed from his office?

Ans:

The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) of India is afforded significant independence and job security, crucial for the Election Commission’s unbiased operation. As such, their removal process is intentionally rigorous, akin to that of a Supreme Court Judge.

Grounds for Dismissal: 

• Proven Misconduct: This entails clear evidence of inappropriate behavior or misuse of authority.
• Inability to Perform: This indicates a demonstrated incapacity to fulfill official duties, often due to physical or mental incapacitation.

Parliamentary Removal Process (Resembling Impeachment): The removal procedure is parliamentary and necessitates a “special majority” in both Houses of Parliament:

• Resolution Origin: A motion for removal must originate in either the Lok Sabha (House of the People) or the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
• Special Majority in Each House: For the resolution to pass, it requires support from:
  • A majority of at least two-thirds of the members present and casting votes in that House.
• Presidential Directive: Should both Houses of Parliament approve the resolution with the required special majority, the President of India then issues an order for the Chief Election Commissioner’s removal.

Important Considerations:

• Tenure Protection: This demanding removal process acts as a constitutional safeguard, shielding the CEC from arbitrary executive dismissal and ensuring their autonomy.
• Recommendation for Other Commissioners: In contrast to the CEC, other Election Commissioners or Regional Commissioners can be removed by the President solely based on the Chief Election Commissioner’s recommendation. This underscores the distinct protection granted to the CEC.
• Distinction from “Impeachment”: While the process shares similarities with the President’s impeachment, the Indian Constitution reserves the term “impeachment” exclusively for the President’s removal. For the CEC and Supreme Court Judges, the process is described as removal “in like manner and on like grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court.”

Question 41.

Mention any two powers (functions) of the Election Commission.

Ans:

It carries out several key functions:

1. Overseeing the Electoral Process: The ECI is responsible for the entire election lifecycle. This includes creating and updating voter lists, setting election schedules and dates, scrutinizing candidate nominations, managing polling, counting votes, and declaring results for parliamentary, state assembly, presidential, and vice-presidential elections.

2. Recognizing Parties and Allocating Symbols: The ECI officially recognizes political parties at national and state levels based on their electoral performance. A crucial part of this role is assigning unique election symbols to recognized parties and independent candidates. Additionally, the ECI acts as a quasi-judicial body, resolving disputes related to party recognition or symbol allocation.

Question 42.

Mention any two stages in the election process before the Election Campaign begins.

Ans:

Here are two key stages:

1. Announcement of Election Schedule and Issue of Notification: This is the very first formal step. The Election Commission of India (ECI) announces the entire election schedule, which includes crucial dates for various activities like filing nominations, scrutiny of papers, withdrawal of candidatures, and the actual polling dates. Immediately following this announcement, the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) comes into effect, imposing certain restrictions on political parties and candidates to ensure a level playing field. A few days later, the ECI issues a formal notification, officially calling upon the electorate to elect members for the respective houses, thereby commencing the legal process of the election.
2. Filing and Scrutiny of Nominations: Once the election notification is issued, prospective candidates interested in contesting the election file their nomination papers within a specified timeframe. These papers include essential details about the candidate, their background, and any required affidavits. After the nomination period closes, the filed papers undergo a rigorous scrutiny process by the Returning Officer. During scrutiny, the papers are examined to ensure they meet all legal requirements and are in proper order. Nominations that are found to be incomplete or invalid can be rejected after a summary hearing. This stage ensures that only eligible candidates proceed to contest the election.

Question 43.

Mention any two techniques of Election Campaign.

Ans:

Election campaigns employ a wide array of techniques to reach voters and persuade them. Here are two prominent and distinct approaches:

1. Door-to-Door Canvassing (Ground Game): This traditional and highly personal technique involves volunteers or campaign staff directly visiting voters at their homes. The goal is to have one-on-one conversations, share the candidate’s message, understand local concerns, identify supporters, and encourage them to vote. It allows for direct engagement, answering questions, and building rapport, which can be very effective in local elections or targeted areas.
   
2. Digital Advertising and Social Media Engagement: In the modern era, leveraging online platforms is crucial. This technique encompasses a broad range of activities, from running targeted ads on social media (like Facebook, Instagram, X/Twitter), search engines, and news websites, to creating engaging content (videos, graphics, posts) to share a candidate’s platform and connect with voters. It allows for precise targeting of demographics, rapid dissemination of information, and real-time interaction with the electorate, making it highly scalable and adaptable.

Question 44.

What is an Election Manifesto? OR What is the use of an Election Manifesto?

Ans:

An election manifesto is a formal, public document issued by a political party or individual candidate prior to an election. It serves as a comprehensive declaration of their intentions, ideology, views, and specific policies or programs they promise to implement if they are elected to power.

Here’s a breakdown of its key uses:

1. Informing Voters: The primary use of an election manifesto is to inform the electorate about what a party or candidate stands for. It’s their roadmap, detailing their proposed solutions to national or local issues across various sectors like the economy, healthcare, education, environment, social welfare, and foreign policy. This allows voters to understand the vision and priorities of each contesting entity.
   
2. Guiding Voter Decisions: By presenting a clear set of policy proposals, manifestos enable voters to compare the platforms of different parties or candidates. This comparison helps them make informed decisions about which party’s agenda best aligns with their own values, needs, and aspirations. It’s a critical tool for voters to weigh their options.
   
3. Campaigning and Communication: Manifestos form the bedrock of an election campaign. They provide the core content for speeches, advertisements, debates, and other communication efforts. Parties often highlight key promises from their manifesto to generate buzz, attract media attention, and rally support among their base and undecided voters.
   
4. Setting a Mandate for Governance: If a party wins an election, its manifesto is often considered its “mandate” from the people. While manifesto promises are generally not legally binding, they create a strong political expectation for the winning party to strive towards fulfilling those commitments. It provides a blueprint for their legislative agenda and governance strategy.
   
5. Accountability and Scrutiny: Post-election manifestos serve as a benchmark against which the performance of the elected government or representative can be measured. Citizens, media, and opposition parties can use the manifesto to hold the elected officials accountable for delivering on their pledges.

Question 45.

Mention any two reasons why a Ballot Paper becomes invalid.

Ans:

A ballot paper can be declared invalid for several reasons, rendering the vote uncounted. Here are two common scenarios:

1. Unclear Voter Intent or Ambiguous Marking: If the way a voter marks their ballot makes their choice uncertain, the vote may be invalid. This could happen if:
   
   • They mark more candidates than permitted for a single position (an “overvote”). For instance, if you can only vote for one person for a particular office, but two names are marked, that specific vote becomes invalid.
   • The mark is vague, smudged, or placed in a way that doesn’t clearly indicate a preference for one candidate over others, or if it’s placed outside the designated voting area.
2. Identifying Marks or Defacement: Any mark, writing, or damage on the ballot that could potentially reveal the voter’s identity compromises the secrecy of the ballot and leads to its invalidation. This is to prevent any form of voter intimidation, coercion, or vote-buying. Additionally, a ballot that is significantly torn, defaced, or otherwise altered beyond normal wear and tear might also be rejected if it appears tampered with or the original intent cannot be discerned.

Question 46.

What is the maximum limit of the expenses for a Parliamentary contest?

Ans:

In India, the Election Commission of India (ECI) sets a cap on the amount of money a candidate can spend when contesting a Parliamentary (Lok Sabha) election. This maximum limit is adjusted based on the geographical size of the state or Union Territory.

Currently, for larger states, a candidate for a Lok Sabha seat can spend up to ₹95 lakh. For smaller states and Union Territories, this expenditure limit is set at ₹75 lakh.

It’s crucial to understand that these ceilings are solely for the individual candidate’s expenses. Interestingly, there is no statutory limit on the expenditure incurred by political parties during elections. This disparity is a significant talking point in discussions about electoral reforms in India, with many advocating for capping party spending to ensure a more level playing field.

Question 47.

Mention any two measures that ensure that elections are free and fair in India.

Ans:

India implements strong safeguards to guarantee free and fair elections, notably through two key mechanisms:

The Independent Election Commission of India (ECI): A constitutionally mandated body under Article 324, the ECI is solely responsible for overseeing, directing, and controlling the entire electoral process for Parliament, State Legislatures, and the President and Vice-President. Its independence is vital:

• Protection from Executive Influence: The Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners enjoy security of tenure, preventing easy removal by the government. Their removal mirrors that of a Supreme Court judge, requiring parliamentary approval by a special majority, thus ensuring unbiased decision-making without political pressure.
• Broad Authority: The ECI possesses extensive powers, including scheduling elections, allocating party symbols, managing voter rolls, monitoring campaign finance, enforcing the Model Code of Conduct, and arbitrating election disputes. This wide-ranging authority allows it to regulate the electoral process comprehensively and tackle malpractices effectively.

Enforcement of the Model Code of Conduct (MCC):

Campaign Regulation: It forbids actions such as using state resources for campaigns, delivering provocative speeches, or offering voter inducements. This prevents the abuse of power by the ruling party and fosters ethical campaigning.

• Promoting Fairness: The MCC becomes active upon election schedule announcement and remains in force until results are declared. The ECI addresses violations through warnings, penalties, or even recommending candidate disqualification, thereby curbing unfair practices and upholding electoral integrity.

Question 48.

Mention any one measure that has been taken to discourage non-serious candidates from jumping into the election fray.

Ans:

One significant measure taken to discourage non-serious candidates from entering the election fray in India is the increase in the security deposit required to file nominations.

Previously, a relatively low security deposit encouraged a large number of candidates, including those with no real chance of winning, to file nominations. This often led to:

• Logistical challenges: Overcrowding on ballot papers and increased administrative burden for election authorities.
• Vote splitting: Non-serious candidates could sometimes draw away a small but significant number of votes, potentially impacting the outcome for more serious contenders.
• Disruption: In some cases, candidates might file nominations just to cause disruption or as a protest, without genuine electoral intent.

By significantly increasing the security deposit, the Election Commission of India (ECI) aims to ensure that only candidates with a genuine intent and some level of support or financial backing are able to enter the contest, thereby streamlining the election process and making it more manageable. If a candidate fails to secure a certain minimum percentage of the valid votes polled (often one-sixth), their security deposit is forfeited.

II. Structured Questions:

Question 1.

With reference to Democracy and Elections, answer the following questions:

(a) Distinguish between two types of elections.

(b) What type of elections are direct and what type are indirect in a Parliamentary Democracy ?

(c) How are elections of the President and Vice-President of India held ?

Ans:

Let’s break down elections in a unique way:

(a) Distinguishing Election Types:

Elections generally fall into two categories:

• Direct Elections: In this method, voters directly choose their desired candidate or party. The person or party with the most votes (or a majority, depending on the system) wins, creating an immediate link between the public’s choice and the elected office. An example is citizens directly voting for a Member of Parliament in their local area.
• Indirect Elections: Here, the public doesn’t vote for the final officeholder. Instead, they elect a group of representatives (like an electoral college), who then proceed to elect the ultimate officeholder. This adds an intermediary step between the voters and the final selection. India’s presidential election, where an Electoral College votes, is a prime illustration.

(b) Direct and Indirect Elections in a Parliamentary Democracy:

Parliamentary democracies employ both election types for various roles:

• Direct Elections:
  • Legislative/Parliamentary Seats: The most common direct elections are for members of the national lower house (e.g., India’s Lok Sabha) or state legislatures. Citizens directly pick their representatives who then form the government.
  • Local Bodies: Elections for municipal councils, village councils (panchayats), and other local self-governance bodies are almost always direct, with the public choosing their local representatives.
• Indirect Elections:
  • Head of State (e.g., President): In many parliamentary republics, the Head of State (like India’s President) is indirectly chosen by legislators or an electoral college. This aims for a non-partisan constitutional figure.
  • Upper House Members: In two-chamber parliaments (like India’s Rajya Sabha), members of the upper house are often indirectly elected by state legislatures or other designated bodies, offering state representation or a chamber for review.

(c) Election Process for India’s President and Vice-President:

Both the President and Vice-President of India are elected indirectly using Proportional Representation by means of the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system, with a secret ballot.

• Presidential Election:
  • Electoral College: Comprises elected members from both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha), and elected members from the Legislative Assemblies of all States and the Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry.
  • Weighted Votes: Votes from MPs and MLAs are weighted based on the population of the states they represent, ensuring balanced representation across the country.
  • STV System: Voters rank candidates by preference. If no candidate secures a set quota of first-preference votes, votes from the lowest-ranked candidate are re-distributed based on second preferences until a candidate reaches the quota.
• Vice-Presidential Election:
  • Electoral College: Consists of all members (both elected and nominated) from both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
  • Key Difference: Unlike the Presidential election, State Legislative Assembly members are not part of the Vice-Presidential Electoral College.
  • STV System: Similar to the Presidential election, it employs Proportional Representation by means of the Single Transferable Vote.

Question 2.

With reference to types of elections, answer the following:

(a) What is known as General Elections ?

(b) State two points of difference between a by-election and mid-term elections.

(c) When were the last General Elections held in India?

Ans:

Based on the provided information, here are the answers regarding types of elections.

(a) General Elections

A general election is a major electoral event where voters elect representatives for all or most political offices at a particular level of government, such as national or state. These elections are typically held at regular, fixed intervals, and their outcome determines the overall composition of the legislature and, in some political systems, the executive branch.

(b) Differences between a By-Election and a Mid-Term Election

• Scope and Scale: A by-election is a small-scale election held to fill a single, specific seat that has become vacant in a particular constituency. A mid-term election, conversely, is a large-scale event involving a significant number of offices, often including a large part of the national legislature.
• Trigger: A by-election is held as a result of an unforeseen circumstance, such as a sitting representative’s death or resignation. A mid-term election, however, is a regularly scheduled event that occurs at a fixed point within a chief executive’s term.

(c) Last General Elections in India

The last General Elections (for the Lok Sabha) in India were held in April-June 2024.

Question 3.

With reference to terms of office and conditions of service of the Election Commission, answer the following questions

(a) Who is the head of the Election Commission ?

(b) How is he appointed ?

(c) State any two functions of the Chief Election Commissioner.

Ans:

Here’s a rephrased and unique take on the information, ensuring it’s free from plagiarism:

(a) At the apex of India’s Election Commission stands the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC).

(b) The authority to appoint the Chief Election Commissioner rests solely with the President of India.

(c) Two pivotal roles of the Chief Election Commissioner include:

• Ensuring the veracity and completeness of voter lists: This responsibility involves steering and supervising the meticulous creation and ongoing refinement of electoral rolls. The objective is to certify that these registers are unimpeachable, all-encompassing, and precisely account for every qualified elector, thereby precluding any oversights or errors.
• Orchestrating and executing nationwide and regional polls: This duty spans the entire spectrum of electoral processes for both federal parliamentary bodies and state legislative assemblies. From unveiling election timelines and vetting candidate applications to supervising voting procedures, tallying votes, and announcing official outcomes, the CEC is indispensable in safeguarding the equity, openness, and democratic integrity of these electoral endeavors.

4. With reference to powers and functions of the Election Commission, answer the following:

Question 4(a).

Explain the role of the Election Commission in fixing the dates for elections and conducting the elections.

Ans:

Its vital role begins with fixing election dates, a process governed by its constitutional mandate under Article 324. The ECI meticulously considers factors like the academic calendar, festivals, weather, law and order, logistical readiness, and the current legislature’s term, all while maintaining complete independence from the government to prevent political interference. Once announced, the election schedule is binding.

Beyond setting dates, the ECI is comprehensively involved in conducting elections. This includes preparing and updating voter lists, defining constituency boundaries, scrutinizing candidate nominations, and recognizing political parties while allocating their symbols. A crucial aspect of its role is enforcing the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), a set of guidelines that ensures fair play among parties and candidates, and taking action against violations. The ECI also manages all logistical arrangements, from deploying election personnel and security forces to monitoring campaign expenditure to prevent undue financial influence. It possesses the authority to cancel elections in cases of severe irregularities and resolve disputes related to party recognition and symbol allocation. Furthermore, the ECI actively promotes voter education and awareness through its SVEEP programs to encourage participation and ethical voting.

Question 4(b).

How does the Election Commission ensure free and fair elections ?

Ans:

• Voter Roll Accuracy: It prepares and regularly updates electoral rolls, removing ineligible names and adding new voters, to ensure only eligible citizens can vote.
• Model Code of Conduct (MCC): The ECI enforces a strict MCC that outlines guidelines for political parties and candidates during elections, preventing misuse of power, hate speech, and undue influence.
• Campaign Finance Monitoring: It sets limits on campaign expenditure and monitors financial activities of parties and candidates to curb the role of “money power” in elections.
• Independent Observers: The ECI deploys independent observers to monitor all stages of the election process, from nomination to counting, ensuring transparency and addressing grievances.
• Technology Use (EVMs & VVPATs): Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) systems are used to enhance accuracy, prevent fraud, and allow voters to verify their choices.
• Addressing Malpractices: The ECI takes swift and strict action against electoral malpractices like booth capturing, voter intimidation, and bogus voting.
• Voter Education: The Commission conducts awareness programs to educate voters about their rights, responsibilities, and the electoral process, promoting informed participation.

Question 5.

With reference to Election procedures, answer the following questions.

(a) State the procedure for allotment of symbols, state its advantages.

(b) State the nomination procedure. What happens when a nomination paper is incomplete ?

(c) State the procedure by secret ballot ?

Ans:

Here’s a concise and unique answer to your questions about election procedures:

(a) Procedure for Allotment of Symbols and its Advantages:

• Procedure: Political parties, both national and state, are assigned ‘reserved’ symbols by the Election Commission of India (ECI). Unrecognized parties and independent candidates choose from a list of ‘free’ symbols. If multiple candidates request the same ‘free’ symbol, the Returning Officer decides based on a lottery or first-come, first-served basis.
• Advantages:
  1. Voter Recognition: Symbols are crucial for illiterate or semi-literate voters to identify their chosen candidate/party, simplifying the voting process.
  2. Campaigning Aid: They provide a visual identity for parties and candidates, making it easier for them to communicate their presence to the electorate, especially in diverse linguistic regions.

(b) Nomination Procedure and Consequences of Incomplete Paper:

• Nomination Procedure: A candidate submits a nomination paper to the Returning Officer of the constituency within a specified timeframe. This paper includes personal details, proposer’s signature (a registered elector from the same constituency), an oath/affirmation of allegiance to the Constitution, and details of criminal records (if any). A security deposit is also required.
• Incomplete Nomination Paper: If a nomination paper is found to be incomplete or incorrect during scrutiny by the Returning Officer (e.g., missing proposer’s signature, incorrect details, or non-payment of security deposit), it can lead to its rejection. The candidate will then be unable to contest the election.

(c) Procedure by Secret Ballot:

• Procedure:
  1. Identification: Voters arrive at the polling station, where their identity is verified against the electoral roll.
  2. Marking: Once verified, the voter proceeds to a secluded voting compartment. They are given a ballot paper (or access to an Electronic Voting Machine – EVM).
  3. Casting Vote: The voter marks their choice (on a ballot paper) or presses the button next to their chosen candidate/party symbol (on an EVM) without anyone else observing their selection.
  4. Secrecy Maintained: For ballot papers, it’s folded and deposited into a ballot box. For EVMs, the vote is electronically registered. The design of the polling booth and the process ensures that the voter’s choice remains confidential, protecting them from any undue influence or intimidation.

Question 6.

With reference to elections, answer the following question:

(a) State the difference between secret ballot and open ballot.

(b) What is known as Election Petition ? State the procedure of filling an election petition.

(c) When is a repoll ordered ?

Ans:

Here’s a concise and unique summary of your points:

(a) Ballot Types:

• Secret Ballot: Voters’ choices remain confidential, fostering independent and uninfluenced decisions.
• Open Ballot: Votes are publicly declared or visible, generally employed when transparency of choice is prioritized, typically in non-governmental elections.

(b) Election Petition Process: An Election Petition is a legal challenge filed in the High Court, disputing election results due to alleged irregularities.

• Filing: A contesting candidate or an elector files it within 45 days of result declaration, in the High Court of the relevant state.
• Content: It must detail grounds for the challenge with specific evidence, be verified, and usually requires a security deposit.

(c) Repoll Scenarios: A repoll is mandated when:

• Booth capturing or severe voter intimidation occurs.
• EVMs are compromised or damaged.
• Significant polling station malpractices (e.g., impersonation, rigging) undermine fairness.
• Unforeseen events disrupt orderly polling.
• Low voter turnout due to disturbances renders the outcome unrepresentative.

Question 7.

What is the need for Elections? What are the comparative advantages and disadvantages of Direct and Indirect Elections?

Ans:

Here’s a concise and unique summary of the provided text on elections:

Elections are vital for healthy democracies, primarily because they facilitate representation, allowing citizens to select individuals to make decisions on their behalf. Elections also legitimize governance, foster peaceful transfers of power, stimulate public discourse on key issues, and encourage citizen participation, giving individuals a voice in their government.

When comparing election types:

Direct elections involve citizens voting directly for officeholders. Their advantages include greater accountability and a clearer mandate from the people, promoting strong civic engagement. However, they can be impractical for large populations, lead to voter fatigue, be susceptible to manipulation, and voters may lack the expertise for complex policy decisions, potentially leading to a “tyranny of the majority.”

Indirect elections involve voters choosing representatives who then select the officeholder (e.g., an electoral college). These are more feasible for large states and allow for more informed decisions by specialized representatives, potentially safeguarding minority rights and offering political stability. Conversely, they can reduce direct accountability, risk a disconnect between representatives and the public, and may be more vulnerable to elite influence or corruption, creating a perceived “democratic deficit” and possibly lowering voter engagement.

Question 8.

With reference to the composition of the Election Commission, explain the following:

(a) Appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners.

(b) Their Terms of Office and Conditions of Service.

Ans:

The Election Commission of India, a constitutional body, manages elections for Parliament, State Legislatures, and the President and Vice-President.

(a) Appointment: The President of India appoints the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners (ECs). This committee includes the Prime Minister (as Chairperson), the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and a Union Cabinet Minister chosen by the Prime Minister. While a Search Committee may suggest potential candidates, the Selection Committee isn’t limited to these suggestions. Typically, candidates for these roles have served at a level equivalent to a Secretary to the Government of India, possess experience in election management, and demonstrate integrity.

(b) Term and Conditions: The CEC and ECs hold their positions for a term of six years or until they turn 65, whichever occurs earlier. They are not eligible for reappointment. Their compensation and benefits are comparable to those of a Cabinet Secretary. The CEC can only be removed through a process similar to that of a Supreme Court Judge, which requires a special majority vote in Parliament. Other Election Commissioners can only be removed if the CEC recommends it. They have the option to resign by submitting a letter to the President. Furthermore, their terms of service cannot be negatively altered after their appointment, which helps safeguard their independence.

Question 9.

What measures have been taken to ensure Independence of Election Commission?

Ans:

The Indian Constitution and subsequent laws have put in place several measures to ensure the independence of the Election Commission (EC):

1. Constitutional Body: The EC is established directly by the Constitution of India (Article 324), making it a permanent and independent constitutional body, not merely a government department.
2. Security of Tenure for CEC: They can only be removed from office in a manner similar to a Supreme Court judge, requiring a resolution passed by both Houses of Parliament with a special majority on grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity.
3. Protection for Other Election Commissioners: While other Election Commissioners (ECs) do not have the same security of tenure as the CEC, they cannot be removed from office except on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner. This provision aims to safeguard their independence from direct political pressure.
4. Fixed Term of Office: The CEC and other ECs are appointed for a fixed term (currently six years or until they attain the age of 65, whichever is earlier). This prevents the government from extending or curtailing their term to influence their decisions.
5. Conditions of Service: The conditions of service for the CEC and ECs cannot be varied to their disadvantage after their appointment. This ensures that their remuneration and other benefits cannot be used as leverage to influence their actions.
6. Independent Budget: The Election Commission has its own independent budget, which is finalized in consultation with the Finance Ministry, giving it financial autonomy.
7. Limited Judicial Interference: Once the election process begins, the judiciary’s intervention is significantly limited, allowing the EC to conduct elections without undue external pressure.
8. Control over Administrative Machinery: During elections, the Election Commission has extensive control over the administrative machinery involved in the electoral process, including transferring officers and taking action against them for non-partisan conduct. This ensures that the administration acts under the EC’s direction for election-related duties.

Question 10.

With reference to the powers and functions of the Election Commission, discuss the following:

(a) Preparation of the Electoral Roll

(b) Recognition of Political Parties

(c) Allotment of Symbols

Ans:

Here’s a concise and unique overview of the Election Commission’s powers and functions regarding electoral rolls, party recognition, and symbol allotment:

(a) Preparation of the Electoral Roll: The Election Commission holds the crucial power to prepare and revise the electoral rolls (voter lists) for all elections. This involves ensuring the accurate inclusion of eligible voters, updating addresses, removing deceased or shifted voters, and facilitating claims and objections to ensure the integrity and inclusivity of the democratic process.

(b) Recognition of Political Parties: The Election Commission is the sole authority for recognizing political parties. This power involves assessing applications from associations of citizens, verifying their adherence to democratic principles, and granting them recognition as national or state parties based on their electoral performance in previous elections. Recognition confers significant privileges, including access to free broadcast time and subsidized electoral rolls.

(c) Allotment of Symbols: A vital function of the Election Commission is the allotment of unique symbols to recognized political parties and independent candidates. These symbols, easily identifiable by voters, especially in a diverse and sometimes less literate electorate, are crucial for distinguishing candidates and parties on the ballot paper, ensuring a fair and understandable electoral process. The Commission also adjudicates disputes regarding symbol allotment.

Question 11.

With reference to powers and functions of the Election Commission, discuss the following:

(a) Conduct of Elections

(b) Ensuring Free and Fair Elections

Ans:

Electoral Oversight and Administration:

The ECI holds exclusive jurisdiction over the entire electoral cycle for parliamentary, state legislative, presidential, and vice-presidential elections. This comprehensive responsibility includes:

• Voter Roll Management: The ECI meticulously creates and continually updates voter lists, ensuring accurate and inclusive records of eligible citizens.
• Boundary Demarcation: It undertakes the crucial task of redrawing electoral constituency boundaries to ensure fair and balanced representation across the country.
• Election Scheduling: The Commission is responsible for officially announcing the complete election timetable, from candidate nominations to polling dates and result declarations.
• Candidate Vetting: A rigorous process of scrutinizing nomination papers is undertaken to verify the eligibility of all contesting candidates.
• Party Recognition and Symbol Allocation: The ECI formally registers political parties and assigns them unique electoral symbols, aiding voter identification.
• Resource Mobilization: Key election officials are appointed, and security personnel are strategically deployed to facilitate the smooth conduct of elections and maintain public order.
• Polling and Counting Supervision: The ECI directly oversees both the voting and vote-counting processes to guarantee accuracy and transparency.
• Result Announcement: It is the official body responsible for declaring the final outcomes of all elections.

Ensuring Fairness and Ethical Conduct:

• Model Code of Conduct Enforcement: A vital set of guidelines, the Model Code of Conduct, is strictly enforced by the ECI to regulate the behavior of political parties and candidates, promoting ethical campaigning, preventing misuse of power, and fostering an equitable environment for all participants.
• Campaign Finance Regulation: The Commission sets limits on campaign expenditures and meticulously monitors financial accounts to mitigate the undue influence of money in elections.
• Combatting Electoral Malpractices: Proactive measures are taken, and decisive action is initiated against irregularities such as booth capturing, fraudulent voting, voter intimidation, and other electoral offenses. The ECI possesses the authority to annul polls and order re-elections when necessary to rectify such issues.
• Voter Education and Engagement: Programs are initiated and implemented by the ECI to educate citizens about the electoral process and actively encourage their participation in democratic exercises.
• Technological Advancement: The strategic deployment of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs) significantly enhances the efficiency, transparency, and reliability of the voting mechanism.

Question 12.

Write a detailed note on the nomination of candidates and the Scrutiny of Nominations.

Ans:

Candidate nomination marks an individual’s formal intent to contest an election. Eligibility requires national citizenship, a minimum age (e.g., 25 in India for parliamentary/state assembly roles), electoral roll registration, and no disqualifications (e.g., holding office of profit, bankruptcy, criminal convictions). The “Nomination Paper” is the key document, detailing personal information, political affiliation, and requiring endorsements from registered voters (fewer for recognized party candidates). A formal pledge to the Constitution, disclosure of assets/liabilities, criminal history, and academic qualifications are also mandatory. Submission is made to the Returning Officer (RO) within a set timeframe, accompanied by a cautionary deposit.

Scrutiny of nominations, conducted by the RO, ensures electoral integrity. This process, typically the day after filing closes, involves verifying all submitted papers for completeness, accuracy, and adherence to eligibility criteria. Candidates, their agents, and endorsers can attend. Challenges to nominations can be raised in writing on legal grounds. The RO investigates objections, allowing the challenged candidate to respond before making a decision. Grounds for invalidation include the candidate not meeting eligibility, significant deficiencies in the nomination paper (e.g., missing deposit, insufficient endorsements), or procedural non-adherence. If valid, the nomination is accepted; otherwise, it’s rejected. The RO’s decision is final for the election’s immediate purpose, though it can be challenged post-election via an election petition in the High Court. These steps are crucial democratic filters, ensuring only qualified individuals compete, thus safeguarding a fair and credible electoral process.

Question 13.

Elections are the barometer of democracy. In this context, answer the following questions:

(a) Mention any three measures that have been taken to ensure free and fair elections in India?

(b) What reforms would you suggest to curb the rigging and violence (use of muscle power) in elections?

Ans:

Here’s a concise and unique answer to your questions, avoiding plagiarism:

(a) Measures for Free and Fair Elections in India:

1. Autonomous Election Commission: India’s Election Commission operates independently, overseeing all election aspects to ensure impartiality and prevent external influence.
2. EVMs with VVPATs: Electronic Voting Machines, coupled with Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trails, minimize electoral fraud like ballot stuffing and provide a verifiable paper record for each vote.

(b) Reforms to Combat Rigging and Violence:

1. Political Decriminalization: Introduce more stringent disqualification rules for candidates facing serious criminal charges, along with expedited trials for election-related offenses. This aims to deter criminal elements from participating in politics.
2. Enhanced Security & Surveillance: Increase deployment of central security forces in sensitive areas and expand the use of CCTV cameras and live webcasting at polling stations to prevent intimidation and ensure real-time oversight.

Transparent Party Funding: Explore partial state funding of elections to reduce reliance on private donations and mandate rigorous auditing and public disclosure of political party finances to curb the influence of illicit money.