Government, Society and Culture Under The Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate’s government was a centralized monarchy with Islamic influence, where the Sultan held ultimate authority aided by key ministers and a hierarchical administrative system dividing the empire into provinces and local units. The military was a crucial component, especially under rulers like Alauddin Khilji who implemented significant reforms.

Society under the Sultanate was characterized by a ruling Muslim elite and a large non-Muslim population, with varying degrees of religious tolerance and social stratification. While the Muslim elite enjoyed privileges, interactions between communities led to cultural exchange. Women generally held subordinate positions, and slavery was prevalent. The majority lived in rural agricultural settings, while urban centers thrived as hubs of administration, trade, and culture.

Culturally, the Sultanate witnessed a significant fusion of Indo-Islamic traditions. This is evident in the distinctive architecture featuring arches, domes, and minarets blended with Indian elements. Persian served as the official language, but the development of local languages like Hindavi flourished. Music and dance saw a synthesis of styles, and art and craft incorporated Islamic motifs with Indian designs. Education was provided through maktabs and madrasas, contributing to the intellectual landscape of the era.

Time To Learn

I. Fill in the blanks:

1. The village administration was managed by ______________ .

Ans:  Muqaddam.

2. Firoz Shah Tughlaq made the _________ system hereditary.

Ans:  Iqtdary

3. Iqtdar received Iqtas.

Ans:  Iqtdar

4. _______________________ arranged irrigation facilities for the farmers.

Ans:  Firoz Shah Tughlaq

5. The mixture of Persian and Hindu style in architecture is called ____________ style.

Ans:  Indo-Islamic

II. Match Column A with Column B:

Ans:

III. State whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Urdu, a new language, developed in the Sultanate period.
   True

2. The Sufi saints believed in one God.
   False.

3. The Sultanate was a military rule.
   True.

4. The village administration was managed by the Bakshi.
   False.

The village administration was managed by the Muqaddam.

5. The culture of the sultanate period saw healthy blending of Hindu and Muslim traditions.
   True.

IV. Answer the following questions briefly:

Question 1.
How did the government function during the Sultanate Period?
Ans:

The Delhi Sultanate’s governance was structured as a centralized monarchy, with ultimate power vested in the Sultan. A hierarchy of ministers managed crucial state functions, including finance, the military, and official communications. The empire was regionally organized into provinces known as Iqtas, each administered by a Muqti responsible for revenue collection and maintaining order. These provinces were further subdivided into districts (Shiqs) and localized village units, each with its own set of officials.

The primary functions of this governmental structure involved ensuring internal security, implementing revenue collection mechanisms like the Iqta system, defending the realm against external and internal threats, administering justice according to Islamic legal principles, and, at times, supporting cultural and intellectual pursuits. The effectiveness of the Sultanate’s administration fluctuated based on the individual ruler’s capabilities and policies, experiencing periods of robust central authority under some Sultans alongside eras of instability caused by influential nobility and internal disputes.

Question 2.

What do you understand about the IQta system? How was this system organised?

Ans:

The Iqta system was a land and revenue assignment method used by the Delhi Sultanate to compensate officials and military commanders. Instead of salaries, they were granted control over territories (Iqtas) from which they collected revenue. A portion of this revenue covered their expenses and the maintenance of a required number of troops for the Sultan’s service, with any surplus ideally remitted to the central treasury.

Iqtadars were also responsible for local administration and justice within their assigned areas. Initially, these assignments were typically transferable, preventing the holders from becoming too entrenched. The Sultan maintained oversight through reporting requirements and the power to grant, transfer, or revoke Iqtas, making it a key system for decentralized governance and military mobilization across the Sultanate.

Question 3.

How was society divided during the Sultanate period?

Ans:

Sultanate society was a hierarchy mainly based on religion: the ruling Muslim elite and the majority non-Muslims. Muslims, though dominant, had internal ranks by ethnicity (Turks, Afghans, Persians, local converts), with foreigners often higher. Non-Muslims, mostly Hindus, were often zimmis with religious freedom but sometimes faced restrictions and the jizya. Hindu society followed the caste system. Class also mattered, from the Sultan and nobles to urban traders/artisans, rural farmers, and slaves.

Question 4.

Describe the important developments which took place in the following fields during the Sultanate period (a) Language (b) Music and (c) Dance.

Ans:

(a) Language:

A significant development during the Sultanate period was the rise of Persian as the official language of administration, literature, and the court. This led to a large influx of Persian vocabulary into local Indian languages. Simultaneously, there was a cross-pollination between Persian and local languages like Hindavi (the precursor to both Urdu and Hindi). This interaction led to the development of a new lingua franca in some regions, incorporating elements of both. Notably, Urdu began to take shape during this era as a result of the mingling of Persian, Arabic, and local dialects like Braj Bhasha and Khari Boli. While Sanskrit remained a language of learning, its prominence in administration diminished. Regional languages like Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, and Telugu also continued to develop and flourish, sometimes influenced by Persian vocabulary and literary styles.

(b) Music:

The Sultanate period witnessed a fusion of Indian and Perso-Arabic musical traditions. The Turkish rulers brought with them their own musical styles and instruments. This interaction led to the introduction of new ragas (melodic modes) with Persian and Arabic names, such as aiman, ghora, and sanam. New musical instruments like the sitar (believed to be an invention or significant development by Amir Khusrau, combining the Indian veena and the Persian tambura) and the tabla (evolved from existing Indian drums with Perso-Arabic influences) emerged. The Qawwali, a devotional musical form associated with Sufism, also developed significantly during this time, largely attributed to Amir Khusrau. Indian classical music also saw developments, with patronage from some rulers and the translation of Indian musical texts into Persian.

(c) Dance:

The most significant development in dance during the Sultanate period was the emergence of Kathak as a distinct classical dance form. Kathak is believed to have evolved from the storytelling traditions of North Indian bards (Kathakars) and absorbed influences from Persian courtly dance forms in terms of costumes and certain movements. This synthesis resulted in a dance style that blended Hindu themes and narratives with the elegance and intricate footwork influenced by Persian traditions. While other regional dance forms continued to exist, Kathak stands out as a direct product of the cultural interaction during the Sultanate era, marking a significant evolution in Indian classical dance.

Question 5.

With examples explain how the Turks and the Arabs influenced the architecture of the Sultanate period.

Ans:

Sultanate architecture uniquely merged Indian and Islamic styles. Turks brought key structures like true arches and squinch arches for domes (Alai Darwaza, Tomb of Iltutmish), and minarets (Qutub Minar). They also used strong mortar/concrete, favoring plain exteriors with geometric, arabesque, and calligraphic designs (Tomb of Balban).

Arab influence, via Islamic styles adopted by Turks, is seen in calligraphy (Qutub Minar), geometric patterns (jali work), mosque orientation to Mecca (mihrab), and courtyard designs (Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque). This blend of Turkish structures and Arab-derived decoration/function, with Indian artistry, created the distinct Indo-Islamic style.

V. Picture study:

This is a picture of popular form of devotional music.

1. What is the name of this form of music?
   Ans.

Qawwali performance.

2. Name the famous personality who created this.
   Ans. Amar Khusrau.

3. What is the theme of the music?

Ans. 

Ghazal, a combination of beautiful poetry with melody, is also a contribution of the Sultanate period.

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. The rule of the Delhi Sultans lasted for over __________ centuries.

Ans: three

2. Society during the Sultanate period was divided into _________ major groups.

Ans: four

3. The Turks introduced _________ and _________ architectural styles.

Ans: Arabic and Persian

4. New musical instruments such as the __________ , ________ and __________ were developed during the Sultanate period.

Ans: tabla, sitar and sarangi

5. The establishment of the Turkish rule in India led to the replacement of __________ by ___________ as the official language in many regions.

Ans: Sanskrit  by Persian

B. Match the following:

Ans:

C. Choose the correct answer:

1. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the aristocrats/the priests/ the peasants were the most powerful class in society.
   Ans.

Under the Delhi Sultanate, the aristocrats were the most powerful class in society.

2. The brahmanas/the ulema/the merchants were the chief advisors to the sultans.
   Ans. 

The ulema were the chief advisors to the sultans.

3. The life of the peasants/the nobles/the priests was one of drudgery and poverty.
   Ans.

The life of the peasants was one of drudgery and poverty.

4. The caste system was followed strictly/sometimes followed/ignored by Hindus.
   Ans.

The caste system was followed strictly by Hindus.

5. Amir Khusrau is believed to have invented the harmonium/sitar/veena.
   Ans. 

Amir Khusrau is believed to have invented the sitar.

D. State whether the following are true or false:

1. The ruling class in the Delhi Sultanate enjoyed.a lavish lifestyle.
   True.

2. The Delhi sultans always allowed the ulema to influence their policies.
   False.
   Correct : The Delhi sultans sometime does not allow the ulema to influence their policies.

3. The purdah system was strictly observed by Muslim women.
   True.

4. The Rajput style of miniature painting continued in the Sultanate period.
   True.

5. New types of food, such as bread and wine, became a part of Indian cuisine during the Sultanate period.
   True.

E. Answer the following questions in one or two words/ sentences:

1. Why was the aristocracy the most powerful social group during the Sultanate period?
   Ans. 

The aristocracy held supreme power in the Sultanate due to their control over high government positions, vast land and revenue (Iqtas), significant military commands, close relationships with the Sultan, and the resulting high social status and prestige. Their influence shaped politics and impacted all social classes.

2. What was the chief source of revenue for the government?
   Ans. 

Land revenue (kharaj) was the primary source of income for the Delhi Sultanate’s government, as the economy was largely based on agriculture. Taxes on agricultural produce, sometimes as high as half the yield, formed the bulk of the state’s financial resources.

Besides land revenue, other significant sources included the jizya (tax on non-Muslims), zakat (religious tax on Muslims), a share of war booty (khamas), and taxes on trade and transit. Various other minor taxes and cesses were also levied, contributing to the state’s overall revenue.

3. During whose reign did the life and conditions of the peasants improve?
   Ans.

The reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD) is generally noted for some improvement in the lives of peasants. He abolished several harsh and non-religious taxes, invested in irrigation projects by constructing and repairing canals, and promoted the cultivation of better crops. He also reportedly offered agricultural loans and took a somewhat more lenient approach to revenue collection compared to some of his predecessors.

While peasants still bore the burden of land revenue, Firoz Shah’s measures like reduced taxes and better irrigation likely provided a degree of stability and relief to the agricultural community. This contrasted with the often oppressive policies of earlier Sultans focused on maximizing state income, suggesting a period of somewhat better conditions for the peasantry under his rule.

4. Why did some Hindus convert to Islam?
   Ans. 

Hindus converted to Islam for various reasons: the appeal of social equality and justice offered by Islam against the rigid caste system; the influential and inclusive teachings of Sufi saints; opportunities for political and economic advancement under Muslim rule; instances of forced conversion (though not the primary driver); intermarriage; and gradual cultural integration. These factors, varying by region and time, contributed to a complex pattern of conversions over centuries.

5. How do we know that women during the Sultanate period were oppressed?
   Ans.

Evidence suggests women faced oppression during the Sultanate period due to their limited public roles (largely absent from governance and public life), the prevalence of purdah restricting their movement and visibility, a subordinate legal and social status influenced by Islamic and Hindu patriarchal laws, the common practice of early marriage and limited access to education, and their general absence from the male-dominated historical narratives of the time. Social norms heavily emphasized their domestic roles, further limiting their agency and participation in broader society.

6. What is the characteristic feature of Sultanate architecture?
   Ans. 

The defining characteristic of Sultanate architecture is its Indo-Islamic fusion, a unique blend of Islamic elements introduced by Turkish rulers with pre-existing Indian architectural styles and craftsmanship. This resulted in structures featuring arches and domes alongside traditional Indian elements like chhatris and jali. Decoration often incorporated geometric patterns, arabesque designs, and calligraphy, while materials like red sandstone and mortar were commonly used, creating a distinctive visual and structural vocabulary.

7. Which two styles of music influenced the development of Hindustani music?
   Ans. 

Hindustani music developed through the fusion of ancient Indian classical music (providing ragas and talas) and Persian (Perso-Arabic) music (introducing new scales, forms like ghazal and qawwali, and instruments like the sitar and tabla).

8. By whom were qawwalis popularized?
   Ans.

Amir Khusrau is widely credited with popularizing Qawwalis. This Sufi saint of the late 13th and early 14th centuries blended Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and Indian musical traditions to create this devotional singing style, which became central to Sufi gatherings.

9. Which style of painting was patronized by the Lodi sultans?
   Ans. 

Persian miniature painting was the primary style patronized by the Lodi Sultans for illustrating books and manuscripts. While their patronage wasn’t as extensive as later rulers, it maintained Persian artistic traditions in India.

10. How did the Turkish rulers gradually become Indianized?
    Ans. 

Turkish rulers in India gradually Indianized through intermarriage with locals, adoption of Indian customs and lifestyles (dress, food, festivals), patronage of local arts and languages (leading to Urdu’s development), forming political alliances with Indian chiefs, the influence of Sufi saints who bridged cultural gaps, and the natural affinity for India developed by subsequent generations born and raised there. This led to a significant cultural synthesis and the emergence of a distinct Indo-Islamic culture.

F. Answer the following questions briefly:

Question 1.
What effect did several centuries of interaction between traditional Indian culture and Islamic culture have on Indian society?
Ans:

Centuries of interaction between traditional Indian and Islamic cultures led to a significant cultural synthesis across Indian society. In language, Urdu emerged as a blend of Persian, Arabic, and local dialects. Art and architecture saw the development of the Indo-Islamic style, fusing arches, domes, and minarets with Indian motifs. Music evolved with new instruments like the sitar and tabla, and new forms like Qawwali. Even social customs and cuisine saw notable exchanges.

Furthermore, this interaction influenced religious thought, fostering syncretic movements like Bhakti and Sufism that emphasized unity and love, bridging religious divides. While conflicts occurred, the overall impact was the creation of a rich, composite culture that continues to shape India’s diverse identity, showcasing a vibrant blend of traditions in various aspects of life.

Question 2.

Describe the main features of society during the Sultanate period with reference to (a) the aristocracy and (b) the peasants.

Ans:

Sultanate society was sharply divided. The aristocracy, the ruling Muslim elite, held immense political power, economic wealth from land grants, military strength, high social status, and often patronized culture. In stark contrast, the peasants, the vast majority, were economically burdened by land revenue, socially marginalized with little power, vulnerable to exploitation, and their lives were centered on agriculture and village communities.

Question 3.

Discuss the distinctive features of Sultanate architecture.

Ans:

Sultanate architecture distinctively fused Islamic and Indian building traditions. Key features included arches and domes alongside Indian elements like chhatris and jali. Ornamentation emphasized geometric and arabesque patterns, and calligraphy. Minarets were significant, and local materials such as red sandstone were prevalent. This synthesis created a unique architectural style, exemplified by the Qutub Minar and Alai Darwaza, blending Islamic structure with Indian aesthetic sensibilities.

Question 4.

Music and dance during the Sultanate period was the outcome of the fusion of Indo-Islamic culture. Explain.

Ans:

Sultanate music and dance arose from Indo-Islamic fusion. Indian classical music blended with Persian/Arabic styles, creating new forms (Qawwali), instruments (sitar, tabla), and melodies. Kathak dance evolved by integrating Indian storytelling with Persian courtly elements. Sultanate courts fostered these blended arts, showcasing a dynamic cultural exchange.

Question 5.

Explain how new customs and practices changed the traditional lifestyle of the Indians.

Ans:

The introduction of new customs and practices by Turkic and other Islamic rulers initiated a gradual transformation of traditional Indian lifestyles. This included the adoption of novel attire like the salwar-kameez, the enrichment of Indian cuisine with new ingredients and cooking techniques resulting in Mughlai fare, and the incorporation of Persianate social etiquette. The establishment of Persian as the administrative language and the subsequent evolution of Urdu altered communication patterns. New artistic expressions emerged, such as Indo-Islamic architecture, the Qawwali in music, and the evolving form of Kathak dance. Sufi philosophical ideas influenced religious thought, and novel administrative and legal frameworks were introduced. These changes, while varying in their regional impact, collectively contributed to the development of a more syncretic and composite Indian culture over the centuries.

G Picture study:

This is a picture of a musical instrument used in Hindustani classical music. The name is derived from the Persian words—‘seh’ (meaning ‘three’) and tar’ (meaning ‘strings’).
Answer:

1. Identify the muscial instrument.
   Ans. Sitar.
2. During which period in medieval Indian history was this instrument invented?
   Ans. During Delhi Sultanate.
3. By whom and how was it invented?
   Ans. AmirKhusrau.
4. Name two other musical instruments that were developed during this period
   Ans. Tabla, Sarangi.