India in the 6th Century BC: Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

These novel faiths directly contested the established Vedic religious system, its intricate ceremonies, and rigid social structure, fueled by increasing discontent, a yearning for straightforward truths, evolving socio-economic landscapes, and a spirit of intellectual exploration.

Jainism, systematically propounded by Mahavira, emphasized core values such as non-injury to living beings, truthfulness, abstention from theft, celibacy, and detachment from possessions. Its central tenets revolved around the concept of karma and the attainment of liberation through moral conduct and rigorous self-discipline, guided by its philosophy of manifold perspectives.  

Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama following his enlightenment, focused on the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path as the means to transcend suffering and achieve Nirvana. Fundamental concepts included karma and the cycle of rebirth. 

Despite their shared origins in the Shramana tradition, Jainism and Buddhism evolved distinct sets of doctrines and practices, each making a profound and enduring contribution to India’s rich philosophical and spiritual heritage.

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Give any two sources to reconstruct the two great religious movements—Jainism and the Buddhism.
Ans:

To reconstruct the significant religious movements of Jainism and Buddhism, historians rely on a variety of evidence. Two crucial categories of sources for each include:

For Jainism:

1. The Sacred Writings: Jain Agamas: These canonical scriptures, believed to encapsulate the teachings of Mahavira, offer extensive details regarding Jain philosophy, the code of conduct for monks and lay followers, and the biography of Mahavira. While different Jain traditions (Shvetambara and Digambara) possess somewhat distinct versions and interpretations, the Agamas serve as fundamental textual resources for understanding Jainism’s core principles.  
2. Material Remains: Jain Architectural Sites: The physical remnants of Jainism, such as stupas (though less prevalent and elaborate than their Buddhist counterparts), rock-cut sanctuaries (notably at Udayagiri and Khandagiri), and later constructed temples (like the Dilwara Temples), furnish tangible proof of Jainism’s historical presence and development. The carvings and sculptures within these sites illustrate Jain iconography and religious concepts, while inscriptions provide valuable information about patronage and the geographical spread of the faith.  

For Buddhism:

1. The Earliest Scriptures: Pali Canon (Tripitaka): the Vinaya Pitaka (monastic regulations), the Sutta Pitaka (discourses and sermons of the Buddha), and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical and psychological analyses). This body of literature provides direct access to the foundational teachings of early Buddhism.  
2. Monumental Evidence: Stupas, Monasteries, and Ashokan Pillars: The numerous stupas built across the Indian subcontinent, often enshrining relics of the Buddha or prominent Buddhist figures, represent significant archaeological finds. Viharas (monasteries) offer insights into the communal life and organizational structure of the Buddhist monastic order. Furthermore, the edicts inscribed on pillars and rock surfaces by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE are invaluable historical records, illustrating the early dissemination of Buddhist principles, its royal support, and its ethical framework. Important sites like Sarnath, Bodh Gaya, and Sanchi are rich in these archaeological treasures.

Question 2.

Mention two causes which favored the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th Century BC.

Ans:

1. Growing Discontent with Vedic Practices: The established Vedic religious framework had evolved into a complex system characterized by intricate and costly rituals and sacrifices, often inaccessible and incomprehensible to the general populace. The preeminence of the Brahmin priestly class and the focus on rigid ceremonialism fostered a sense of detachment and a yearning for more uncomplicated and understandable spiritual avenues. Jainism and Buddhism provided direct and uncomplicated teachings and practices that appealed to individuals seeking a more immediate and less financially burdensome path to spiritual realization.
   
2. The Oppressive Caste Hierarchy: The stringent and hierarchical nature of the prevailing caste system engendered considerable social disparities and resentment. The lower social orders, particularly the Shudras, endured numerous limitations and discrimination. In stark contrast, both Jainism and Buddhism questioned the rigid caste structure by advocating for equality and offering the prospect of spiritual liberation to all individuals, irrespective of their social origin. This message of social and spiritual egalitarianism drew many from the marginalized sections of society who sought dignity and a means to transcend the restrictive social order.

Question 3.

Name the first and the last two Jain

Ans:

The initial Tirthankara in Jainism was Rishabhanatha, who is also revered as Adinatha.

The final two Tirthankaras in the Jain tradition are:

• The twenty-third Tirthankara: Parshvanatha
• The twenty-fourth Tirthankara: Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana.

Question 4.

What was the original name of Mahavira?

Ans:

Mahavira was initially named Vardhamana.  This name translates to “the increasing one” or “prosperous,” reflecting the belief that his birth brought prosperity to his family. Subsequently, he became renowned as Mahavira, signifying “Great Hero,” a title earned through his extraordinary courage and fortitude in conquering worldly desires and attaining spiritual liberation.

Question 5.

How did Vardhamana become Mahavira?

Ans:

Jain scriptures attribute the name Mahavira, meaning “Great Hero,” to Vardhamana because of his exceptional bravery and unwavering resolve in confronting perils, anxieties, adversities, and misfortunes during his severe ascetic practices.

• Early Life and Departure: Born into royalty as Vardhamana, he relinquished his privileged existence around the age of thirty to pursue spiritual enlightenment.
• Arduous Asceticism: For a period of twelve and a half years, he embraced an intensely austere life, engaging in profound meditation, enduring significant physical privations, and overcoming worldly attachments. Throughout this demanding phase, he is described as remaining steadfast and undisturbed.
• Achievement of Kevala Jnana: Following years of rigorous discipline, he attained Kevala Jnana, or perfect, all-encompassing knowledge.
• Acknowledgement of Heroism: It was during or following this era of intense struggle and ultimate enlightenment that he became recognized as Mahavira. Divine beings are said to have bestowed this title upon him, acknowledging his heroic endeavors in conquering his internal foes (such as attachments and desires) and enduring extreme hardships on his journey to liberation.

Question 6.

Why were the followers of Mahavira called Janis?

Ans:

The literal meaning of “Jina” is “conqueror.” This appellation was bestowed upon Mahavira due to the belief that he had triumphed over his internal adversaries, encompassing attachments, desires, and negative sentiments, through his stringent ascetic disciplines and the attainment of omniscience (Kevala Jnana).

Consequently, his followers were known as Janis (or Jainas), signifying “followers of the Jina” or “those who adhere to the conquerors” (in reference to Mahavira and the other Tirthankaras who have achieved liberation).

Question 7.

Mention any two teachings of Mahavira (any two doctrines of Jainism).

Ans:

Mahavira’s teachings prominently feature these two doctrines of Jainism:

1. Non-Injury (Ahimsa): This central tenet transcends the simple avoidance of physical harm to any living creature. It mandates abstaining from violence in thought, word, and deed towards all life forms, irrespective of their size or nature. This principle dictates practices such as adhering to a strict vegetarian diet, exercising caution in movement to prevent harm to insects, and cultivating an overall compassionate disposition towards all existence.
   
2. The Principle of Multiple Perspectives (Anekantavada) or the Theory of “It may be” (Syadvada): This doctrine posits that truth and reality are multifaceted and possess numerous aspects. Therefore, Jainism advocates for intellectual humility and tolerance towards differing perspectives. This concept is often illustrated by the parable of the blind people and the elephant, where each individual perceives the elephant differently based on their limited point of contact, yet none grasp the complete picture. Syadvada expresses this relativity of knowledge through the conditional prefix “syat,” meaning “it may be” or “perhaps,” applied to every assertion.

Question 8.

What is known as Triratna in Jainism?

Ans:

In Jainism, the Triratna, or Three Jewels, signifies the integrated path to spiritual liberation (Moksha). These three essential principles, practiced in unison, are:

1. Right Perception (Samyak Darshana): This involves a truthful and rational conviction in the teachings of the Jinas (Tirthankaras), the intrinsic nature of the soul (Jiva), and the path leading to liberation. It entails discerning and comprehending reality as it truly is, devoid of illusion and bias. It is about possessing unwavering faith in the verity disclosed by enlightened beings.
   
2. Right Understanding (Samyak Jnana): This refers to the accurate and comprehensive grasp of Jain doctrines and principles. It surpasses mere intellectual comprehension, encompassing a lucid and thorough understanding of reality, the essence of the soul, karma, and the means to achieve liberation. Right understanding is characterized by the absence of doubt and superstitious notions.
   
3. Right Behavior (Samyak Charitra): This involves the practical implementation of right perception and right understanding through a life lived in accordance with Jain principles. It includes the observance of the five great vows (Mahavratas) for ascetics and the five lesser vows (Anuvratas) for lay practitioners, along with the disciplined regulation of one’s thoughts, speech.

Question 9.

Name the two sects of Jainism. What is the main difference between the two?

Ans:

The two primary divisions within Jainism are:

1. Digambara: Translating to “sky-clad,” the ascetics of this sect adhere to the practice of complete nudity, which symbolizes their renunciation of all material possessions, including garments. Their doctrine includes the belief that women cannot achieve liberation in their present life and must be reborn as males to attain Moksha. Furthermore, they maintain that the original Jain scriptures are no longer extant.
   
2. Shvetambara: Meaning “white-clad,” the monks and nuns of this sect wear unstitched white attire. Their tenets include the belief that women are capable of attaining liberation and that the original Jain scriptures are partially preserved in the Agamas.

The principal distinction between these two sects resides in the monastic practice of nudity, their perspectives on the spiritual potential of women, and their views regarding the authenticity and availability of the ancient Jain texts.

Question 10.

Mention the “Four Great Sights” of Buddhism.

Ans:

Siddhartha Gautama’s sheltered existence underwent a profound transformation triggered by four significant observations, conventionally termed the “Four Great Sights,” which catalyzed his renunciation and pursuit of enlightenment. These pivotal encounters were:

1. An Ailing Elderly Man: Siddhartha witnessed a man advanced in age, his body feeble and hunched, relying on a stick for support and laboring to walk. This marked his initial confrontation with the reality of senescence and the ephemeral nature of youth.
   
2. A Person Suffering from Disease: Subsequently, he encountered an individual afflicted with illness, visibly experiencing pain and distress. This encounter revealed the widespread presence of sickness and the fragility of well-being.
   
3. A Deceased Individual (or a Cremation Ritual): Siddhartha observed a lifeless body being transported for cremation, directly confronting him with the inescapable truth of mortality and the cessation of life.
   
4. A Serene Ascetic: Finally, he encountered a wandering hermit who radiated tranquility and detachment from worldly concerns. This vision presented a potential means to overcome suffering and achieve inner peace.

These four experiences shattered Siddhartha’s protected understanding of the world, exposing him to the universal suffering inherent in human existence. The sight of the serene ascetic offered a glimmer of hope and motivated him to seek a resolution to this suffering, ultimately leading to the founding of Buddhism.

Question 11.

What is known as the Great Renunciation?

Ans:

The Great Renunciation, or Mahabhinishkramana, was Siddhartha Gautama’s (the future Buddha’s) decisive departure from his royal life around age 29 to become a wandering ascetic seeking the end of suffering. Driven by the Four Great Sights, he left his family and palace in a silent, symbolic act, beginning his ascetic journey that led to Buddhism. It’s a pivotal moment of profound sacrifice and commitment.

Question 12.

How did Gautama come to be known as the Buddha?

Ans:

Buddhism’s core tenets stem from the enlightenment of Gautama Siddhartha, who became the Buddha (“the awakened one”).  His path to this state began with renouncing a life of luxury for asceticism, a period of extreme self-denial. After realizing this was an ineffective path, he adopted the Middle Way, a moderate approach between indulgence and asceticism.

His transformative moment came during deep meditation under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya. During this meditation, he achieved Bodhi (enlightenment), a state of profound understanding of the nature of reality, suffering, and the path to liberation. This realization marked his transition from a prince and ascetic into the Buddha, the foundational figure of Buddhism.

Question 13.

Name the place where Buddha got Enlightenment.

Ans:

This location holds immense significance in Buddhism as the site of the Buddha’s awakening and is considered its holiest place. 

Question 14.

Name the place where Buddha gave his first Sermon.

Ans:

Upon reaching enlightenment, the Buddha journeyed to Sarnath, near Varanasi, to deliver his inaugural sermon. This pivotal address, known as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (“Turning of the Wheel of Dharma”), was given to five former companions and marked the formal start of Buddhism. During this sermon, he expounded upon the Four Noble Truths—the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the path to its cessation—and introduced the Eightfold Path as the means to achieve liberation. 

Question 15.

What are the “Four Noble Truths” of Buddhism?

Ans:

Buddhism’s foundational “Four Noble Truths” explain suffering (Dukkha), its origin in craving (Samudaya), its cessation through eliminating craving (Nirodha), and the path to end it – the Noble Eightfold Path (Magga). These truths offer a realistic view of life and a guide to liberation.

Question 16.

Mention any four points of the Buddhist Eight-Fold Path.

Ans:

Here are four components of the Buddhist Eightfold Path:

1. Right Thought (Samma Sankappa): This refers to cultivating wholesome intentions, such as kindness, compassion, and detachment, while avoiding harmful thoughts like greed and hatred.
   
2. Right Speech (Samma Vaca): This entails speaking truthfully, kindly, and constructively, avoiding lies, slander, harsh language, and idle gossip.
   

Right Action (Samma Kammanta): This involves behaving ethically and morally, abstaining from actions that cause harm, such as harming living beings, stealing, and sexual misconduct.

Question 17.

Mention any two teachings of Lord Buddha.

Ans:

Based on the provided text, the core principles of Buddhism can be summarized into the Four Noble Truths and the Middle Path.

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths address the reality of suffering and its cessation. The first truth acknowledges that suffering (Dukkha) is an inherent part of human existence. The second truth identifies the root of this suffering as craving and attachment (Samudaya). The third truth offers hope, stating that it’s possible to end this suffering (Nirodha) by eliminating these cravings. Finally, the fourth truth provides the practical guide to achieving this: the Noble Eightfold Path (Magga).

The Middle Path

It rejects the extremes of both self-indulgence and severe asceticism. This approach, advocated by the Buddha, suggests that genuine liberation and understanding come from a moderate lifestyle that integrates ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom without unnecessary hardship. The Noble Eightfold Path is the practical framework for following this balanced way of life.

Question 18.

Mention any two similarities in the teachings of Jainism and Buddhism.

Ans:

Two key shared doctrines of Jainism and Buddhism are:

1. The Paramountcy of Non-Violence (Ahimsa): Both faiths deeply emphasize non-violence towards all forms of life. While Jainism stresses meticulous care to prevent harm to even the tiniest organisms, Buddhism also regards non-harming and compassion as fundamental ethical principles. Both traditions instruct their adherents to avoid actions that cause pain or distress to others.
   
2. The Principles of Karma and Rebirth (Samsara):The ultimate aim in both is liberation from this cycle – Moksha in Jainism and Nirvana in Buddhism – though their understanding of the self and the nature of liberation varies.

Question 19.

What is the importance of the Jatakas in Buddhism?

Ans:

The Jatakas, a voluminous collection of literature originating in the Indian subcontinent, hold significant importance in Buddhism for several reasons:

1. Illustrating the Bodhisattva Path: The Jatakas narrate the previous lives of the Buddha in both human and animal forms, when he was a Bodhisattva (a being on the path to Buddhahood). These stories demonstrate how the Bodhisattva cultivated the paramitas (perfections or virtues) such as generosity, morality, patience, effort, concentration, and wisdom over countless lifetimes.
   
2. Teaching Moral and Ethical Values: The tales are rich in moral lessons and ethical teachings. Through engaging narratives, they illustrate the principles of karma, the importance of virtuous conduct, compassion, honesty, self-sacrifice, and the consequences of negative actions. They make abstract Buddhist principles relatable and understandable through storytelling.
   
3. Connecting with a Wide Audience: The Jatakas often incorporate popular folklore and relatable characters, including animals, deities, and ordinary people facing everyday situations. This accessibility has made them a powerful tool for disseminating Buddhist values and teachings across various cultures and to people of all ages and literacy levels.
   
4. Inspiration for Art and Culture: Jataka stories have been a major source of inspiration for Buddhist art, literature, drama, and festivals throughout the Buddhist world. They are depicted in ancient temple carvings (like those at Sanchi and Bharhut), murals, and continue to be retold in various forms, enriching the cultural heritage of Buddhist societies.
   
5. Understanding the Buddha’s Journey: By recounting the Buddha’s past lives, the Jatakas provide a narrative context for his final attainment of enlightenment. They highlight the long and arduous journey involving countless acts of merit and self-improvement that led to his Buddhahood.
   
6. Preservation of Folk Wisdom: The Jataka collection also preserves a wealth of ancient Indian folklore and social customs, offering insights into the society and values of the time when they were compiled.

Question 20.

How do Buddhist ideals still affect our life?OR What impact did Buddha’s teachings have on Mahatma Gandhi’s thoughts?

Ans:

The profound ideals of Buddhism continue to resonate and shape our lives in numerous ways:

Influence on Modern Life:

• Mindfulness and Meditation: The Buddhist emphasis on mindfulness has been widely adopted in secular contexts, particularly in psychology and well-being practices. Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) are evidence-based approaches used to manage stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain, demonstrating the practical benefits of Buddhist meditative techniques.
• Ethical and Moral Frameworks: Buddhist ethics, centered on compassion, non-violence, honesty, and mindful consumption, offer a valuable framework for navigating complex moral issues in modern society. These principles influence ethical discussions in fields ranging from environmentalism and animal welfare to business and personal relationships.
• Peace and Conflict Resolution: The Buddhist emphasis on non-violence, understanding the root causes of conflict, and cultivating inner peace provides valuable insights for peacebuilding efforts, both on a personal and global scale. Concepts like the interconnectedness of all beings foster a sense of universal responsibility.
• Psychology and Well-being: Buddhist psychology’s understanding of the mind, emotions, and the nature of suffering has significantly influenced Western psychology, contributing to a more holistic view of mental health and well-being. Concepts like attachment, impermanence, and the illusion of a fixed self are explored in therapeutic settings.
• Social Justice and Activism: The Buddhist principles of compassion and interconnectedness inspire many individuals and organizations working for social justice, human rights, and environmental protection. The idea of alleviating suffering for all beings motivates action towards a more equitable and sustainable world.
• Arts and Culture: Buddhist philosophy and stories continue to inspire art, literature, film, and music, enriching our cultural landscape with themes of mindfulness, compassion, and the search for meaning.

Impact on Mahatma Gandhi’s Thoughts:

Mahatma Gandhi, while deeply rooted in Hindu traditions, was significantly influenced by Buddhist teachings, particularly in the following areas:

• Ahimsa (Non-Violence): He acknowledged the profound influence of Buddhist principles of non-harming, extending it to not only physical violence but also violence in thought and word.
• Compassion and Universal Love: The Buddhist emphasis on metta (loving-kindness) and karuna (compassion) resonated deeply with Gandhi’s advocacy for sarvodaya (welfare of all) and his belief in the power of love, even for one’s adversaries.
• Truth and the Middle Way: Satyagraha sought a path between passive acceptance of injustice and violent resistance, appealing to the conscience of the oppressor, much like the Buddhist emphasis on understanding and wisdom.
• Self-Purification and Inner Transformation: Gandhi stressed the importance of self-purification as essential for social change, aligning with Buddhist practices of mindfulness and overcoming negative mental states like greed and hatred.
• Interconnectedness: Gandhi’s understanding of the unity of all life and the idea that harming others ultimately harms oneself echoes the Buddhist principle of dependent origination (pratityasamutpada), highlighting the interconnectedness of all phenomena.

Question 21.

What is called a Vihara?

Ans:

To elaborate:

• Initial Significance: In early Pali scriptures, the term “vihara” broadly denoted any organized space or structural arrangement serving as dwellings, essentially a general term for lodging.
• Rainy Season Abodes: The earliest viharas frequently originated as simple shelters constructed to accommodate monks during the monsoon season (vassa), when travel was challenging.
• Development into Monastic Centers: As monastic communities expanded and gained support, these temporary shelters transformed into permanent monastic residences and hubs for religious practice and scholarly pursuits.
• Architectural Structure: A typical vihara often comprised an open central area enclosed by individual living quarters or cells for the monks. Larger viharas, particularly rock-cut ones in India, sometimes included a central hall for communal gatherings and occasionally a shrine housing a stupa or Buddha statue.
• Centers of Education: Numerous viharas, such as the renowned Nalanda and Vikramashila, flourished into significant centers of Buddhist learning and universities, drawing scholars from across Asia.
• Community Focal Points: Beyond serving as residences and educational institutions, viharas also functioned as vital community centers for lay Buddhists, offering spiritual guidance and a venue for religious activities and ceremonies.

Question 22.

Give two reasons why Magadha grew into a powerful kingdom around 600 BC.

Ans:

Two pivotal reasons for Magadha’s ascent to a powerful kingdom circa 600 BCE were:

1. Favorable Geographic Position and Resource Availability: Nestled within the fertile Gangetic plains, Magadha possessed a strong agricultural base, ensuring economic prosperity. Its access to nearby rich iron ore deposits facilitated the creation of superior arms and tools, giving its military a key advantage. Furthermore, its location along vital trade routes connecting eastern and western India stimulated commerce and generated wealth. 
2. Ambitious and Capable Rulers: Magadha was led by a succession of ambitious and effective kings such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and Mahapadma Nanda. These rulers implemented efficient administrative systems, built strong standing armies, and pursued expansionist policies through strategic alliances, including matrimonial ones, and military conquests. They were also known for their innovative military tactics, notably the early and widespread use of war elephants, which provided a significant edge over rivals. Their focus on centralized political power and effective governance enabled them to consolidate authority and efficiently utilize the kingdom’s resources.

Question 23.

Mention any two factors that led to the growth of Jainism.

Ans:

Two notable factors that fostered the expansion of Jainism include:

1. Accessible Teachings and Vernacular Language: Mahavira’s doctrines were conveyed in a clear and uncomplicated style, focusing on ethical living and self-mastery. In contrast to the intricate ceremonies and the Sanskrit language prevalent in the Vedic tradition, Jainism employed Prakrit, the language spoken by the common populace. This linguistic accessibility enabled a wider segment of society to comprehend and embrace Jain principles more easily.
   
2. Opposition to Caste Hierarchy and Ritualistic Practices: Jainism provided a spiritual path accessible to all, irrespective of their social stratum. It rejected the inherited and hierarchical structure of the Vedic caste system, advocating spiritual egalitarianism. Moreover, it stood against the elaborate and often costly rituals common in the Vedic religion, offering a more direct and individualistic route to spiritual advancement. This resonated with individuals marginalized by the prevailing social and religious order.

Question 24.

What were the causes of the decline of Jainism?

Ans:

The reasons for Jainism’s gradual decline were varied and unfolded over time:

1. Arduous Observances: Jainism’s rigorous asceticism and strict ethical guidelines, especially its intense focus on non-violence, proved difficult for most people to consistently uphold, restricting its widespread acceptance compared to more accommodating religions.
   
2. Fluctuating Royal Endorsement: While some rulers, such as Chandragupta Maurya and Kharavela, initially supported Jainism, consistent and long-term patronage across different regions and centuries was absent. The rise of Buddhism and later Hindu denominations often diverted royal favor and resources away from Jainism.
   
3. Competition from Emerging Religions: The rise and expansion of Buddhism, with its more balanced “Middle Path,” posed a significant challenge to Jainism. Subsequently, the resurgence of various Hindu sects, fueled by influential leaders and the Bhakti movement, further diminished Jainism’s prominence. These movements often incorporated some Jain ethical principles, lessening the perceived need for a separate Jain identity for many.
   
4. Intricate Philosophy: Certain aspects of Jain philosophy, such as the concepts of jiva (soul), ajiva (non-soul), and the doctrine of manifold viewpoints (Anekantavada), could be intellectually challenging, potentially limiting its broad comprehension and adoption.
   
5. Limited Outreach Efforts: In comparison to Buddhism’s active propagation, Jain ascetics may have engaged in less widespread and sustained missionary activities to reach broader populations over time.
   
6. Socio-Political Changes and Incursions: Socio-political transformations, economic shifts, and foreign invasions sometimes led to the destruction of Jain monasteries and centers of learning, impacting the religion’s organizational structure and influence.

Question 25.

Mention two factors that led to the spread and growth of Buddhism.

Ans:

Two key factors that fueled the expansion and development of Buddhism were:

1. Straightforward and Understandable Doctrines: In contrast to the intricate rituals and the Sanskrit language of the Vedic tradition, the Buddha conveyed his teachings in the vernacular language of the time (Pali) and emphasized practical principles such as the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. This accessibility allowed a broader spectrum of the population, irrespective of their social status or level of education, to comprehend and connect with his message.
   
2. Imperial Support, Particularly from Ashoka: The conversion of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka to Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE marked a pivotal moment. He actively championed Buddhism across his extensive empire through edicts inscribed on pillars and rocks, dispatching missionaries to various regions within India and beyond (including Sri Lanka and potentially further westward), and supporting the monastic community (Sangha). This royal endorsement provided substantial resources, infrastructure, and prestige to the burgeoning religion, significantly aiding its widespread propagation.

Question 26.

Mention any two causes of the decline of Buddhism.

Ans:

The decline of Buddhism in India, its land of origin, was largely due to these two factors:

1. Hindu Resurgence and Assimilation: Over time, various Hindu philosophical schools and the popular Bhakti movement gained traction. They often incorporated Buddhist ethical and philosophical principles, like non-violence, while making Hinduism more accessible. This led to the gradual absorption of Buddhist followers, diminishing the need for a separate Buddhist identity as many saw the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu.
   

Diminished Royal Patronage: While early rulers like Ashoka and Kanishka heavily supported Buddhism, later rulers favored other religions. This resulted in reduced financial and institutional support for Buddhist monasteries and learning centers, weakening the Sangha’s ability to maintain influence and spread its teachings. Invasions that destroyed key Buddhist centers also significantly contributed to this decline.

Question 27.

Mention the contribution of Buddhism to India Literature.

Ans:

Buddhism significantly shaped Indian literature by:

• Fostering Pali literature with the Tipitaka and Jataka tales, making teachings accessible.
• Contributing Sanskrit literary masterpieces like Ashvaghosha’s works.
• Producing profound philosophical texts by scholars like Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu.
• Deeply influencing later Indian literature with its themes and storytelling styles.

Question 28.

What was the purpose of a Chaitya?

Ans:

The primary function of a Chaitya, or Chaitya Hall, was as a Buddhist prayer hall or sacred enclosure, designed for communal worship focused on a stupa.

Its purposes included:

• Assembly for Worship: Serving as a gathering place for both monastic members and lay followers to engage in prayer, rituals, and listen to religious teachings, in contrast to the Vihara, which was a monastic residence.
• Stupa Veneration: Housing a stupa, a domed structure often containing relics of the Buddha or significant Buddhist figures, around which devotees would circumambulate in a clockwise direction as an act of reverence and meditative practice.
• Community Spiritual Center: Providing a central location for the Buddhist community to connect, strengthening their shared faith and religious practices.
• Space for Contemplation: Offering a tranquil and often impressive environment, characterized by high vaulted roofs and sculpted pillars, conducive to individual meditation and reflection.
• Symbolic Significance: Its architectural design often held symbolic representations of Buddhist cosmology and philosophical concepts.

Question 29.

Name-any two places famous for Buddhist rock-cut caves.

Ans:

1. Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): These caves, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, are celebrated for their remarkable murals and sculptures that vividly depict the life and teachings of the Buddha. They stand as outstanding examples of Buddhist art created between the 2nd century BCE and approximately 480 CE.
   
2. Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): Also a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Ellora is unique for its harmonious coexistence of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain rock-cut temples. The Buddhist caves here, dating from around the 6th to the 10th centuries CE, showcase intricate carvings of Buddha figures and Bodhisattvas.

Question 30.

Mention two important features of any one Chaitya at Ajanta.

Ans:

Two significant features of the Chaitya at Ajanta Cave 10, a prime early example, include:

1. The Distinctive Chaitya Arch: The facade of Cave 10 showcases a prominent horseshoe-shaped arch, also known as a chaitya window or gavaksha. This unique architectural element acts as the primary light source within the hall and is a defining characteristic of early rock-cut Chaityas.The arch is further embellished with intricate carvings and decorative patterns.
   
2. The Central Aniconic Stupa: The interior of Cave 10 is dominated by a stupa carved directly from the rock. In this early stage of Buddhist art, the Buddha was represented through symbols rather than human figures (aniconic). Consequently, the stupa itself served as the principal object of veneration, embodying the Buddha’s presence and his final liberation (Parinirvana). The stupa in Cave 10 is a solid, dome-shaped structure topped with a harmika (a railing-like enclosure), symbolizing the realm of the gods. 

Question 31.

Mention any two features of the Ashokan Pillars.

Ans:

Two important features of the Ashokan Pillars are:

1. Monolithic Structure: This demonstrates remarkable craftsmanship and engineering skill in transporting and erecting these massive structures, which often stood between 40 to 50 feet in height and weighed up to 50 tons.
   
2. Highly Polished Surface: The pillars exhibit a characteristic high polish, often referred to as the Mauryan polish. This mirror-like finish gave the pillars a distinctive sheen and luster, showcasing the advanced techniques of stone finishing during that era. The uniformity of this polish across different pillars suggests a standardized and sophisticated method of execution.

Question 32.

Mention two important features of the Lion-Capital of the Samath Pillar.

Ans:

Two noteworthy features of the Lion Capital from the Sarnath Pillar are:

1. The Quartet of Back-to-Back Lions: The most arresting element is the sculpture of four imposing Asiatic lions standing with their rears joined. Carved with open mouths, they appear to be roaring or proclaiming the Dharma (Buddhist doctrine) in all directions. These lions symbolize power, courage, pride, and the Buddha’s regal lineage (Shakya clan, meaning “lion”).
   
2. The Abacus Adorned with Symbolic Fauna and Wheels: Situated beneath the lions is a drum-shaped abacus embellished with relief carvings of four animals separated by Dharma Chakras (wheels of law). The Dharma Chakras symbolize Buddhist law and the cycle of existence. This detailed carving on the abacus contributes significant symbolic depth to the capital.

Question 33.

What is the significance of the Lion-Capital for modern India?

Ans:

The Sarnath Lion Capital, India’s National Emblem, embodies:

• National Essence: Symbolizes sovereignty, unity, and prestige, evident on official insignia.
• Fundamental Principles: Represents strength, valor, pride, and India’s dedication to peace and advancement (Dharma Chakra).
• Historical Linkage: Connects contemporary India to the just and peaceful heritage of Emperor Ashoka.
• Ethical Basis: Its Buddhist ties subtly ground the state in morality and tolerance, affirmed by “Satyameva Jayate.”

Question 34.

What was the purpose of a Stupa ?

Ans:

A Stupa in Buddhism functioned mainly as a relic holder for the Buddha and other Buddhist saints. It evolved to also commemorate key places and events in the Buddha’s life, represent Buddhist philosophy symbolically, serve as a central object of worship and pilgrimage, and act as a community and learning hub.

Question 35.

Name the religious literature containing the teachings of the Lord Buddha.

Ans:

The core scriptural collection preserving the teachings of Lord Buddha is the Tripitaka (Pali) or Tripiṭaka (Sanskrit), meaning “Three Baskets.”

This body of work is structured into three principal parts:

1. Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline for Monastics): This section details the code of conduct, rules, and ethical principles for the monastic order of monks and nuns.
   
2. Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses of the Buddha): This section contains the sermons, teachings, dialogues, and narratives delivered by the Buddha on various facets of the Dharma, the path to awakening. It is further organized into several groupings called Nikayas.
   
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings or Philosophy): This section offers a more systematic and in-depth analysis of the Buddha’s doctrines, exploring philosophical and psychological concepts to provide a comprehensive understanding of Buddhist principles.

Question 36.

Mention the reason why the teachings of Buddha were called the ‘Middle Path’.

Ans:

• Avoid Extremes: They steer clear of both indulgence in sensual pleasures and harsh self-mortification.
• Emphasize Balance: The Noble Eightfold Path offers a moderate approach to ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom.
• Present a Central Perspective: The principle of dependent origination avoids the absolute views of eternalism and annihilationism.

Question 37.

Name two rulers of Northern India who contributed to the spread of Buddhism in India and abroad.

Ans:

Two notable rulers from Northern India who played a crucial role in disseminating Buddhism both within India and in foreign lands were:

1. Emperor Ashoka (Mauryan Dynasty): Subsequent to his conversion to Buddhism after the Kalinga War, Ashoka became an ardent supporter of the faith. Furthermore, he dispatched Buddhist missionaries to various parts of India and to nations such as Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and potentially even regions in West Asia and the Mediterranean. His endeavors were pivotal in transforming Buddhism from a regional sect into a major global religion.
   
2. Emperor Kanishka (Kushan Dynasty): Reigning several centuries after Ashoka, Kanishka was another significant royal patron of Buddhism. Kanishka actively supported Buddhist scholars and missionaries, and during his reign, Buddhism flourished in the Gandhara region (present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) and spread further into Central Asia along the Silk Road, eventually reaching China.

Question 38.

Mention the influence of Buddhism on Hinduism.

Ans:

Buddhism significantly influenced Hinduism in several key areas. The Buddhist emphasis on ahimsa, or non-violence, deeply impacted Hindu practices, leading to a greater adoption of vegetarianism and a more compassionate view toward animals in many Hindu communities.

The Bhakti movement in Hinduism, which centers on personal devotion to a deity, may have been influenced by the intense personal piety seen in Buddhist devotional practices. This shift made a direct emotional connection with the divine accessible to a wider range of people.

Philosophically, interactions with Buddhism prompted new developments in Hindu thought. The Advaita Vedanta concept of maya, or illusion, shows a possible link to the Buddhist idea of the transient nature of reality. Additionally, the importance of meditation and yogic practices in some Hindu traditions was likely reinforced through their engagement with Buddhist contemplative methods.

Buddhism’s rejection of the caste system put pressure on Hindu society to confront its own social inequalities, inspiring various reform movements that challenged discrimination based on caste.

Finally, Hinduism absorbed the Buddha into its own framework by considering him the ninth avatar of the god Vishnu. The Buddha’s use of vernacular languages like Pali, rather than exclusively Sanskrit, also influenced Hindu devotional literature to be more accessible to the common people.

Question 39.

Mention two important features of each — Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism.

Ans:

Here are two important features of each, Mahayana and Hinayana (also known as Theravada) Buddhism:

Mahayana Buddhism:

1. The Bodhisattva Ideal: A central figure in Mahayana is the Bodhisattva, an individual who strives for enlightenment not just for their own liberation but for the liberation of all sentient beings. They take a vow to postpone their own Buddhahood until all others are saved, embodying great compassion and wisdom. This contrasts with the Arhat ideal in Hinayana, which focuses on individual liberation.
   
2. Emphasis on Emptiness (Sunyata) and Buddha-Nature: Mahayana philosophy emphasizes the concept of sunyata, the emptiness of inherent existence of all phenomena. It also posits the existence of a universal Buddha-nature inherent in all beings, suggesting that everyone has the potential to become a Buddha.
   

Hinayana (Theravada) Buddhism:

1. Focus on Individual Liberation and the Arhat Ideal: The primary goal in Hinayana is to become an Arhat, a perfected being who has attained Nirvana and is free from the cycle of rebirth. The emphasis is on individual effort, self-discipline, and the following of the Buddha’s teachings to achieve personal salvation.
   
2. Strict Adherence to Original Teachings and the Pali Canon: They often have a more conservative approach to doctrine and practice compared to the later developments in Mahayana.

Question 40.

What was the impact of Jainism and Buddhism on the caste system ?

Ans:

The impact of Jainism and Buddhism on the caste system in India was significant, primarily through challenging its rigidness and advocating for social and spiritual equality.

Both religions:

• Rejected the authority of the Brahmins and the hereditary basis of social hierarchy.
• Taught that spiritual liberation was accessible to all, regardless of their caste.
• Did not discriminate against lower castes and welcomed them into their monastic orders and lay communities.
• Emphasized individual effort and ethical conduct over birth status as the determinant of one’s spiritual progress.

While they didn’t entirely eradicate the deeply entrenched caste system, Jainism and Buddhism provided a powerful alternative social and religious framework that undermined its legitimacy and offered dignity and opportunities to those marginalized by it. This influence contributed to social reform movements within Hinduism over time.

Question 41.

Mention two features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC which were opposed by the Buddha.

Ans:

Two key features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC opposed by the Buddha were:

• The rigid Varna (caste) system: The Buddha rejected the hereditary and hierarchical nature of the Varna system, advocating for spiritual equality and that one’s worth was determined by actions, not birth.
• The emphasis on elaborate rituals and sacrifices: The Buddha opposed the complex and often costly Vedic rituals and animal sacrifices, emphasizing a path of inner transformation, ethical conduct, and meditation for liberation.

Question 42.

Mention any two features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC which were accepted by the Buddha.

Ans:

Two aspects of the 6th Century BC Brahmanical faith that the Buddha acknowledged were:

1. The Law of Karma: The Buddha concurred with the Brahmanical principle that actions (karma) have repercussions shaping future existences within the cycle of rebirth (samsara).
   
2. The Pursuit of Liberation: The Buddha shared the Brahmanical aspiration to transcend the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, albeit proposing a distinct path (Nirvana) to attain this liberation (Moksha in Brahmanism).

Question 43.

Name one of the famous Chaityas in Eudora.

Ans:

Vishvakarma.

Question 44.

With what religion, was the cave-temple at Udayagiri associated ?

Ans:

With Jain religion

Question 45.

Mention the important features of the Viharas at Udayagiri.

Ans:

Udayagiri in Odisha was a significant Buddhist center. Its Viharas (monasteries) exhibit these important features:

• Enclosed Complexes: The Viharas were often enclosed within compound walls, providing a defined and likely secure space for the monastic community.
• Stupas as Central Focus: Within the monastic complex, a prominent stupa served as a central point for worship and reverence.
• Multiple Monasteries: Excavations have revealed more than one monastic complex, indicating a thriving Buddhist community.
• Sculptures of Deities: The Viharas housed numerous sculptures of Buddha and Bodhisattvas like Tara, Manjusri, and Avalokitesvara, reflecting Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhist practices prevalent at the site.
• Meditation Cells: The presence of meditation cells suggests dedicated spaces for the monks’ contemplative practices.
• Terracotta Seals: Discoveries of terracotta seals, sometimes with inscriptions, likely identified the monastic order or individual monks residing there.
• Architectural Elements: Features like carved doorways, and possibly apsidal chaitya-grihas (prayer halls) associated with stupas, were part of the Vihara architecture.

Question 45.

Mention the important features of the Viharas at Udayagiri.

Ans:

The Viharas at Udayagiri (Odisha) are part of a significant Buddhist complex active from the 7th to 12th centuries CE and known historically as “Madhavapura Mahavihara”. Important features include:

1. Enclosed Monastic Complexes: Excavations have revealed Buddhist monastic complexes enclosed within compound walls, indicating a structured community living.
2. Stupas as Central Focus: The presence of stupas, including a main stupa with images of Dhyani Buddhas, highlights their importance for worship and reverence within the Viharas.
3. Meditation Cells: The existence of meditation cells suggests dedicated spaces for the monks’ spiritual practices and contemplation.
4. Sculptural Decoration: The Viharas are adorned with sculptures of Buddha, Tara, Manjusri, and Avalokitesvara, reflecting the Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhist affiliations of the site.
5. Terracotta Seals and Inscriptions: The discovery of terracotta seals and epigraphic inscriptions provides valuable historical information about the Vihara’s name and its connections to the wider Buddhist world.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.
Examine the sources to reconstruct the two great religious movements —Jainism and Buddhism — under the following heads (a) Twelve Angas (b) Tripitakas (c) Jatakas
Ans:

Reconstructing Jainism and Buddhism through the provided literary sources reveals:

(a) Twelve Angas (Jainism): They cover a wide range of topics including conduct, doctrine, karma, and cosmology, providing a comprehensive framework for Jain philosophy and practice.

(b) Tripitakas (Buddhism): The Tripitakas (“Three Baskets”) form the core Buddhist canon across various schools. The Vinaya Pitaka outlines monastic rules, the Sutta Pitaka contains the Buddha’s discourses and teachings, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka presents philosophical and psychological analyses of Buddhist doctrine.

(c) Jatakas (Buddhism): The Jatakas are a collection of popular stories primarily found within the Sutta Pitaka of the Pali Canon. They narrate the previous lives of the Buddha in both human and animal forms, illustrating the development of his virtues and providing moral and ethical lessons for followers.

Question 2.

There were many factors responsible for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th century BC.

In this context, explain the role of the following:

(a) Ritualistic Vedic Religion.

(b) Supremacy of the Priestly Class.

(c) Rigit Caste System.

(d)Difficult Vedic Language.

Ans:

The 6th century BCE saw the rise of Jainism and Buddhism, largely spurred by disaffection with the dominant Vedic religion. Several facets of Vedic society directly contributed to their emergence:

(a) Overly Ritualistic Vedic Religion: Vedic practices had grown excessively focused on costly, complex rituals, often involving animal sacrifices. Many perceived these ceremonies as spiritually hollow and burdensome, desiring simpler, more profound paths to salvation. Jainism and Buddhism provided direct alternatives, stressing ethical conduct and non-violence, which appealed to those disillusioned by ritualism.

(b) Brahminical Dominance: The Brahmin priests held immense power, monopolizing religious knowledge and rites. This made them essential but also led to exploitation and excluded common people. Jainism and Buddhism challenged this priestly supremacy, asserting that spiritual liberation was attainable by anyone through personal effort, thus eroding Brahminical authority.

(c) Rigid Caste System: Vedic society was marked by a strict, hereditary caste system, fostering widespread discrimination and social immobility, particularly for lower varnas. Both Jainism and Buddhism vehemently condemned this system, advocating for equality and prioritizing individual actions (karma) over birth status. 

(d) Inaccessible Vedic Language: Vedic scriptures were in Sanskrit, a complex language largely unknown to the populace. This linguistic barrier meant religious understanding was restricted to the educated priestly elite, further alienating the masses. Jainism and Buddhism strategically used vernacular languages (like Pali and Ardhamagadhi) to spread their teachings, making doctrines understandable and directly engaging for a wider audience.

Question 3.

Give a brief account of the life of Lord Mahavira. Explain his teachings regarding:

(a) The Five Vows

(b) Belief in God

(c) Rejection of Rituals

(d) Treating People on an Equal basis

Ans:

After twelve and a half years, he achieved Kevala Jnana (omniscience), subsequently spending three decades propagating his profound spiritual insights.

His central teachings are defined by:

• The Five Vows (Maha-vratas): These form the ethical bedrock of Jainism, encompassing:
  • Ahimsa: Universal non-violence in thought, word, and deed.
  • Satya: Truthfulness, provided it is wholesome.
  • Asteya: Non-stealing, including not taking more than necessary.
  • Brahmacharya: Chastity and celibacy.
  • Aparigraha: Non-attachment to all possessions.
• Unique Conception of Divinity: Jainism asserts an eternal universe, not one created by a singular God. Instead, “Gods” are perfected souls (Siddhas or Arhats) who have achieved liberation by shedding all karma, implying every soul’s inherent potential for divinity.
• Dismissal of Ritualism: Mahavira vehemently rejected elaborate Vedic rituals and the need for priestly intermediaries. He declared that true liberation (moksha) stems from individual effort, right conduct, knowledge, and faith, not external rites.
• Embracing Equality: He unequivocally condemned the rigid caste system and all forms of birth-based discrimination. Mahavira championed the equality of all human beings, emphasizing that an individual’s value and potential for salvation (Nirvana) are determined by their karma and moral behavior. Notably, he also welcomed women into the monastic fold.

Question 4.

With reference to the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha, explain the following:

(a) How did Buddha get Enlightenment?

(b) What views did Buddha hold regarding:

(1) Karma Theory  (2) Nirvana  (3) Existence of God; and  (4) Ahimsa?

Ans:

Gautama Buddha’s journey to enlightenment and his teachings on key concepts like karma, Nirvana, and Ahimsa have had a profound impact on spiritual thought.

The Path to Enlightenment

Siddhartha Gautama’s quest for enlightenment was driven by his recognition of the inherent suffering in life. His breakthrough came while meditating under the Bodhi tree. He entered a deep state of concentration, facing and ultimately overcoming mental defilements like craving and aversion. This meditative state allowed him to gain a complete understanding of the nature of suffering, its origins, its cessation, and the practical path to end it. This profound realization, known as Nirvana, marked him as the Buddha, the “Awakened One.” It was a moment of deep insight where he understood the interconnectedness of all phenomena and the cyclical nature of existence.

Core Buddhist Concepts

Here’s an overview of some of Buddha’s most significant teachings:

• Karma: The Buddha redefined karma from a system based on ritual to one based on intention. Wholesome, compassionate intentions create positive karma, leading to favorable outcomes, while unwholesome intentions create negative karma, leading to suffering. This shifted the focus of spiritual practice to personal responsibility and conscious moral choices, empowering individuals to shape their own destiny.
• Nirvana: Often misunderstood as a physical place or a state of non-existence, Nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhism. It’s a state of profound peace and freedom, achieved by “extinguishing” the fires of craving, aversion, and ignorance. It is the end of suffering and the cycle of rebirth. The Buddha described it as the unconditioned—a state beyond all worldly phenomena, characterized by the absence of greed, hatred, and delusion.
• God:He did not engage in theological debates, considering them a distraction from the practical path to liberation. His teachings focused on self-effort, ethical conduct, and wisdom as the means to enlightenment, without relying on a divine savior. This emphasis on individual accountability and personal practice is a cornerstone of Buddhist philosophy.

Ahimsa: The principle of non-harming is central to Buddhist ethics. The Buddha advocated for universal compassion toward all living beings, extending the concept of non-violence beyond physical acts to include harmful speech and thoughts. He taught that since all beings desire happiness and fear suffering, one should refrain from causing harm. This principle is a fundamental aspect of Buddhist monastic discipline and guides a gentle, compassionate approach to life.

Question 5.

With reference to the spread and growth of Buddhism, explain the role of each of the following:

(a) Simple Teachings.

(b) Simple Language.

(c)The Buddhist Sangha.

(d) Royal Patronage.

Ans:

The significant growth and widespread adoption of Buddhism can be attributed to several key factors that made it appealing and accessible to a broad audience.

Factors Behind Buddhism’s Expansion

(a) Simple Teachings: Buddha’s teachings were remarkably straightforward and accessible, focusing on practical ethics and the cessation of suffering rather than complex metaphysics or elaborate rituals. This simplicity resonated deeply with common people, who found the Vedic religion’s rituals and philosophical intricacies daunting and often irrelevant to their daily lives. The emphasis on individual effort and moral conduct made salvation seem attainable for everyone, fostering wide appeal.

(b) Simple Language: Unlike the exclusive use of Sanskrit in Vedic texts, Buddha chose to disseminate his teachings in Pali, the vernacular language of the masses. This decision was revolutionary, breaking down the linguistic barrier that had confined religious knowledge to the priestly elite. It allowed ordinary people to directly understand and engage with Buddhist doctrines, fostering a sense of ownership and empowerment that contributed immensely to the rapid and widespread adoption of the faith.

(c) The Buddhist Sangha: The establishment of the Sangha (monastic order) was a crucial institutional innovation for the spread of Buddhism.They traveled widely, preached to diverse audiences, and established monastic centers that became vital hubs for learning and spiritual practice. The Sangha’s disciplined communal life, ethical conduct, and commitment to teaching provided a strong organizational backbone for the burgeoning religion.

(d) Royal Patronage: This state sponsorship provided immense resources, legitimacy, and protection, enabling Buddhism to transcend regional boundaries and become a major world religion.

Question 6.

With reference to the decline of Buddhism in India, explain each of the following causes:

(a) Revival of Brahmanical Hinduism.

(b) Loss of Royal Patronage.

(c) Split in Buddhism.

(d) Corruption in Buddhist Sangha.

Ans:

Here’s an explanation of the key causes:

(a) Revival of Brahmanical Hinduism: Following centuries of Buddhist ascendance, Brahmanical Hinduism underwent a significant revival and reformation. Hindu scholars and philosophers like Shankaracharya engaged in intellectual debates with Buddhist thinkers, often proving more persuasive in philosophical discourse. Furthermore, Hinduism itself adapted and assimilated some aspects of Buddhism, such as the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) and even incorporating Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu. This made Hinduism more appealing to the masses, who no longer saw Buddhism as a distinct or superior alternative. The simplification of Hindu rituals and the emphasis on devotional worship (Bhakti movement) also drew people back into the Hindu fold, making it more accessible and relatable to the common person compared to the increasingly monastic and philosophical nature of later Buddhism.

(b) Loss of Royal Patronage: These rulers provided significant financial support, built monasteries, and promoted Buddhist teachings. However, over time, this patronage waned. Subsequent powerful dynasties, such as the Guptas, often favored and actively promoted Brahmanical Hinduism. The shift in royal support meant a drastic reduction in funds for Buddhist monasteries and institutions, weakening their ability to sustain themselves, maintain their infrastructure, and propagate their teachings effectively. Without state support, Buddhism struggled to compete with the resurgent and well-funded Hindu institutions.

(c) Split in Buddhism: As Buddhism evolved, it experienced internal divisions, most notably into the Hinayana (Theravada) and Mahayana sects. In contrast, the Mahayana tradition introduced the concept of Bodhisattvas (enlightened beings who delay their own Nirvana to help others), idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas, and the use of Sanskrit. While Mahayana initially broadened Buddhism’s appeal, these changes sometimes blurred the lines between Buddhism and the burgeoning devotional cults of Hinduism.

(d) Corruption in Buddhist Sangha: Over centuries of receiving generous royal patronage and donations from wealthy merchants, some Buddhist monasteries (Sanghas) accumulated immense wealth. This prosperity, unfortunately, led to a decline in the austere discipline and ethical purity that were central to early Buddhism. Monks and nuns sometimes became engrossed in worldly affairs, luxurious living, and the accumulation of riches, straying from the renunciatory ideals of the Buddha. This corruption and moral decay within the Sangha alienated the common people who had initially been attracted to Buddhism’s emphasis on simplicity and selfless conduct. The decline in the moral authority of the monastic order made it less inspiring and less effective in attracting and retaining followers.

Question 7.

What impact did Buddhism have on:

(a) India’s Religion.(b) Literature .(c) Education (d) Art and Architecture.

Ans:

Buddhism’s influence on Indian civilization was profound and multifaceted, leaving an enduring legacy across its religious, literary, educational, and artistic spheres.

Impact of Buddhism in India:

(a) India’s Religion: Buddhism served as a potent challenge to the prevailing Vedic order, critiquing its elaborate rituals, rigid caste system, and priestly dominance. Its emphasis on ethics, individual spiritual effort, and universal accessibility to liberation resonated deeply. Even after its decline in India, Buddhism left indelible marks on Hinduism. The principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) became more prominent, and aspects of Bhakti (devotional worship) within Hinduism drew parallels with Mahayana Buddhist practices. The assimilation of Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu further illustrates this religious intermingling.

(b) Literature: Buddhism significantly enriched Indian literature by championing vernacular languages like Pali. The Tripitakas (Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma Pitakas) are foundational Pali literary works, containing Buddha’s teachings and monastic rules. The popular Jataka Tales, depicting Buddha’s past lives, influenced Indian storytelling. With Mahayana Buddhism, a vast body of Sanskrit Buddhist literature emerged, including notable texts like the Lalitavistara Sutra and Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita. Buddhist scholars also contributed to advancements in grammar, logic, and philosophy.

(c) Education: Buddhism revolutionized education by transforming monasteries (viharas) into major learning centers. Institutions like Nalanda, Taxila, and Vikramshila became renowned universities, attracting scholars globally. Education was often open to all castes, fostering a spirit of inquiry and contributing to a more widespread learned populace.

(d) Art and Architecture: Buddhism left a profound and distinctive mark on Indian art and architecture:

• Stupas: These hemispherical dome-like structures, enshrining relics (e.g., Great Stupa at Sanchi), became iconic Buddhist architectural forms, evolving into elaborate, decorated monuments.
• Chaityas: Rock-cut prayer halls, often with a stupa at one end (e.g., Karla, Ajanta caves), showcased intricate carvings and frescoes.
• Viharas: Monastic dwelling places for monks and nuns, often multi-storied and rock-cut or constructed, provided communal spaces for the Sangha.
• Sculpture: Initially aniconic (symbols representing Buddha), Buddhist sculpture evolved with the Gandhara and Mathura schools, which introduced the human form of the Buddha, complete with specific mudras (hand gestures) and attributes, profoundly influencing subsequent Indian sculpture.
• Painting: Murals and frescoes in caves like Ajanta, depicting Jataka tales and Buddha’s life, represent masterpieces of ancient Indian painting, exhibiting sophisticated techniques and narrative artistry.

Question 8.

Study the picture of the Stupa at Sanchi and answer the following questions:

(a) When and by whom was the Original Stupa built ?

(b)Which Dynasty enlarged it ?

(c) Mention two important features of the Stupa.

(d) What events are depicted on the Panels of the Gateway ?

Ans:

The Sanchi Stupa stands as an iconic testament to ancient Indian architectural prowess and spiritual legacy.

(a) Genesis of the Original Stupa: The initial brick structure of the Great Stupa at Sanchi was commissioned in the 3rd century BCE by Emperor Ashoka, a pivotal monarch instrumental in propagating Buddhist principles across his vast empire.

(b) Dynastic Expansion: The original edifice underwent substantial enlargement and encasement in stone during the Sunga period (2nd century BCE). 

(c) Salient Architectural Characteristics: Among its most defining attributes are its hemispherical dome, or ‘anda’, which conceptually represents the universe or the Buddhist cosmological sphere, and its four intricately sculpted gateways (‘toranas’), precisely aligned with the cardinal points. These gateways are particularly celebrated for their detailed narrative carvings.

(d) Narratives on the Gateway Panels: The panels gracing the gateways are richly embellished with narrative carvings portraying significant episodes from the Buddha’s life and a collection of Jataka Tales (accounts of the Buddha’s previous incarnations). Notably, in this early phase of Buddhist artistry, the Buddha himself is not rendered in anthropomorphic form but is instead conveyed through symbolic representations such as the Bodhi tree, a lotus blossom, a dharma wheel, or footprints, underscoring his spiritual essence rather than a physical portrayal.

Question 9.

Mention the points of difference between the two sects of Buddhism—the Mahayana and the Hinayana.

Ans:

The evolution of Buddhism led to a significant schism, resulting in two distinct traditions: Hinayana (more accurately referred to as Theravada) and Mahayana. While both branches originate from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, they diverged notably in their core philosophies, practices, and ultimate objectives.

Theravada Buddhism (the “Doctrine of the Elders”) is generally seen as the more traditional and conservative school, diligently preserving the Buddha’s original teachings as found in the Pali Canon. Its central aspiration is individual liberation, or Arhatship, wherein practitioners strive to achieve Nirvana through rigorous self-discipline, meditative practices, and strict adherence to monastic guidelines. Theravadins typically view the Buddha as a historical human being and an exemplary teacher, rather than a divine entity, and consequently do not engage in his idolization. 

In contrast, Mahayana Buddhism (the “Great Vehicle”) emerged as a more inclusive and expansive form of the faith. This compassionate ideal is embodied by the Bodhisattva, an enlightened being who voluntarily defers their own entry into Nirvana to guide others toward enlightenment. Mahayana adherents often perceive the Buddha as a divine or transcendent figure and actively practice the worship of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. They believe that salvation can be attained not only through personal exertion but also through faith, devotion, and the transfer of merit. Mahayana scriptures are predominantly in Sanskrit, and its influence is widespread in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Vietnam. Furthermore, Mahayana encompasses intricate philosophical schools, such as Madhyamika and Yogachara, which explore deeper metaphysical concepts like emptiness (Shunyata) and Buddha-nature.

Question 10.

In the 6th century BC, many Republics developed in India. In this context explain:

(a) The administrative system of the Republics.

(b) Causes why the Republics collapsed.

Ans:

The 6th century BCE was a period of significant political evolution in India, witnessing the emergence of powerful monarchies alongside a unique system of republics (Ganas or Sanghas). These republics, concentrated primarily in the Himalayan foothills and the Gangetic plains, offered an alternative to the centralized rule of kingdoms.

(a) The Administrative System of the Republics: The administrative system of these republics was characterized by a more participatory and consultative form of governance compared to monarchies.

• Assembly (Sangha or Gana Parishad): At the heart of each republic was a general assembly comprising the heads of leading families or clans, warriors, and sometimes even ordinary citizens. This assembly held supreme authority, deliberating and deciding on all matters of state, including war, peace, law, and administration. Debates were often lively, aiming for consensus.
• Elected Head (Raja or Ganapati): Unlike hereditary monarchs, the chief executive or “Raja” of a republic was elected by the assembly from among its members. This head presided over the assembly meetings, enforced its decisions, and acted as the chief administrator and military leader. His power was not absolute and was subject to the will of the assembly.
• Absence of Standing Army: Many republics did not maintain large standing armies. Instead, their military strength relied on the citizen-militia, where all able-bodied men were expected to participate in defense.
• Justice System: Justice was dispensed by the assembly or by appointed judicial committees, with an emphasis on customary law and communal agreement.
• Limited Taxation: Taxation in republics was generally less oppressive than in monarchies, as the expenses of a large court and bureaucracy were minimal. Revenue was often generated through tolls, land levies, and voluntary contributions.

(b) Causes why the Republics collapsed: Despite their unique democratic features, most of these republics eventually collapsed, largely due to internal weaknesses and external pressures from the growing monarchies.

• Internal Dissensions and Factionalism: The very nature of republican governance, relying on deliberation and consensus, often led to internal feuds, rivalries among powerful clans, and factionalism. Disagreements within the assembly could paralyze decision-making, making them vulnerable to external threats. The ideal of equality often struggled against the reality of competing family interests.
• Lack of Strong Leadership and Centralization: While elected leaders prevented tyranny, the rotating nature of leadership and the emphasis on collective decision-making sometimes resulted in a lack of strong, consistent leadership necessary to counter powerful and centralized monarchies. Their decentralized nature made it difficult to respond swiftly and decisively to crises.
• Military Inferiority to Monarchies: The growing monarchies, particularly Magadha, developed powerful standing armies, advanced military technologies (like elephants), and sophisticated military strategies. 
• Absorption by Expanding Monarchies: The most significant cause of their collapse was the aggressive expansionist policies of powerful monarchies, particularly the Magadha Empire. Rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru systematically conquered and annexed the neighboring republics, integrating their territories into their vast empires. 
• Rise of the Empire Ideal: Over time, the ideal of a large, unified empire gained traction, viewed as more stable and efficient for governance and defense against external threats. The republican model, despite its merits, struggled to fit into this emerging political landscape.

Question 11.

Study the picture of an excavated hall at Karle and answer the following questions:

(a) What is the name given to such a Hall ?

(b) Name the State in which Karle Cave is situated.

(c) What was the purpose of the Hall ?

(d) Mention three important features of the Hall at Karle.

Ans:

The excavated hall at Karle is known as a Chaitya Hall, specifically referred to as the Great Chaitya Hall, serving as a primary site for prayer and congregation for Buddhist monks. The hall’s primary function was as a Buddhist prayer hall and a space for the monastic community to gather.

Key features of the Karle Chaitya Hall include its distinction as one of the largest rock-cut Chaitya halls in India. Architecturally, it boasts a striking vaulted roof adorned with original wooden ribs, a rare preservation. Furthermore, the interior is characterized by intricately carved pillars, featuring detailed sculptures of human figures and animals, adding to its artistic grandeur. A distinctive large horseshoe-shaped window at the entrance is another prominent feature, designed to illuminate the hall’s interior.

Question 12.

During King Bimbisara’s reign, Magadha rose to great prominence. In this context mention briefly:

(a) The conquests and achievements of King Bimbisara.

(b) Reasons why Magadha became a powerful kingdom.

Ans:

Based on the text you provided, here is a summary of the main points.

King Bimbisara’s Achievements

His most significant military success was the conquest of Anga, which gave Magadha control over crucial trade routes and ports, boosting its economy.

His other achievements included:

• Strategic Capital: He established his capital at Rajagriha, a city naturally fortified by hills, making it easily defensible.
• Administrative Reforms: He created an organized administrative framework with a hierarchy of officials to oversee governance and tax collection.
• Standing Army: Bimbisara was a pioneer in creating a professional, standing army, which gave Magadha a significant advantage over its rivals.
• Diplomacy: He maintained good relations with other rulers through diplomacy, notably by sending his personal physician, Jivaka, to treat the king of Avanti.

Why Magadha Became Powerful

• Strategic Geography: Located in the fertile Gangetic plains, Magadha had a strong agricultural base.
• Natural Resources: The region had abundant iron ore for superior weapons and tools, and dense forests provided timber and elephants for the army.
• Effective Leadership: A line of capable rulers, starting with Bimbisara, pursued expansionist policies through both warfare and diplomacy.
• Military and Administrative Advantage: The establishment of a centralized administration and a professional standing army provided stability and the means for sustained expansion.
• Social Openness: Magadha’s society was less rigid than other kingdoms, fostering a liberal environment that supported new religious and philosophical movements like Buddhism and Jainism.

Question 13.
Give a brief account of the life of Lord Mahavira. With reference to his teachings explain:

(a) Principle of Ahimsa.
(b) No Belief in God.
(c) Doctrine of Salvation.
(d) Rejection of Rituals.
(e) Equality of all Human beings.
Ans:

Lord Mahavira (the Jina), the 24th Jain Tirthankara, born a royal around 599 BCE, renounced his life at 30 for a 12-year ascetic path, attained Kevala Jnana at 42, founded the Jain community, and reached Nirvana at 72.

His key teachings emphasized:

(a) Ahimsa (Non-Violence): Jainism’s core principle, extending to non-violence in thought, speech, and action towards all jivas, demanding mindful living to avoid harming even tiny organisms.

(b) Absence of a Creator God: Jainism views the universe as eternal and self-governing, focusing on individual jiva‘s self-liberation (moksha). Tirthankaras are guides, not deities granting salvation.

(c) Doctrine of Liberation (Moksha): The ultimate goal is liberation (moksha) from the cycle of samsara through shedding karma via asceticism and the Three Jewels: right faith, knowledge, and conduct.

(d) Rejection of Vedic Practices: Mahavira opposed Vedic rituals, especially animal sacrifices, stressing inner purification through self-control, meditation, and ethics as the path to spiritual freedom.

(e) Equality of All Beings: Mahavira preached spiritual equality regardless of birth, status, or gender, welcoming all into his order and challenging social hierarchies, believing every soul can achieve liberation through righteous living.

Question 14.

There are many sources to reconstruct the two great religious movements – Jainism and Buddhism. In this context mention the significance of each of the following:

(a) The Jataka tales and the Tripitakas.

(b) Stupa at Sanchi and Shravan Belgola.

(c) Gandhara School of Art.

Ans:

Jataka Tales & Tripitakas (Buddhism): Jatakas are moral stories of Buddha’s past lives, offering social/economic glimpses and popular teachings. Tripitakas are the earliest, core Buddhist scriptures (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma), detailing doctrine, rules, and philosophy.

Sanchi Stupa & Shravan Belgola (Buddhism & Jainism): Sanchi Stupa showcases early Buddhist architecture, art depicting Buddha’s life and Jatakas, and historical inscriptions. Shravan Belgola is a key Jain pilgrimage site with Bahubali statue, Jain temples, and inscriptions, reflecting Jain ideals and history.

Gandhara School of Art (Buddhism): This art style uniquely blended Greco-Roman and Indian styles, creating the first human depictions of Buddha and illustrating Buddhist narratives, influencing Buddhist art across Asia.