Natural Regions of the World

The Earth’s surface can be divided into a number of natural regions, each with unique characteristics shaped by its climate and geographical position. Near the equator, the Equatorial region is defined by consistently high temperatures and abundant rainfall throughout the year, supporting dense, biodiverse evergreen rainforests like those found in the Amazon. Moving slightly away from the equator, the Tropical Grasslands, or savannas, experience high temperatures but with distinct wet and dry seasons, leading to a landscape of tall grasses dotted with trees and a rich variety of large wildlife. On the western coasts of continents, the Hot Desert regions are marked by extreme daily temperature shifts and very little precipitation, where life is sparse and adapted to arid conditions. In the mid-latitudes, the Temperate Grasslands are located in the interior of continents and are characterized by hot summers and cold winters, providing a treeless environment ideal for large-scale agriculture.

Further north, the planet’s colder zones dominate the landscape. The Taiga region spans across the northern continents, defined by its long, frigid winters and a landscape of vast coniferous forests. Life here is sparse, with human activity primarily focused on logging and the fur trade. Finally, the Tundra region is situated in the Arctic, a cold, treeless plain where the ground is permanently frozen beneath the surface (permafrost). The harsh climate allows only for low-lying vegetation like mosses and lichens, and the sparse human population consists of nomadic groups whose lives are centered around hunting and fishing in this extreme environment.

Exercises

I. Short Answer Questions.

Question 1.
Define the term ‘natural region’.
Ans:

A natural region is a geographical expanse on the Earth unified by a common set of environmental and physical attributes. These unifying features typically encompass a consistent climate, similar topography, a characteristic type of native plant life, and uniform soil composition.

Rather than being marked by human-drawn political lines, the limits of a natural region are determined by where these shared environmental factors naturally transition. Consequently, each such region acts as a self-contained ecological system where the resident plant and animal species, along with human activities, are all profoundly shaped by the same set of natural conditions. For instance, the Tundra is considered a natural region due to its defining features of extreme cold, permanently frozen ground, and the presence of low-lying, hardy vegetation.

Question 2.

Name any four natural regions of the world.

Ans:

1. The Equatorial Region
2. Hot Desert Region
3. Temperate Grasslands
4. The Tundra Region

Question 3.

Briefly state the importance of climate.

Ans:

Climate is a cornerstone of our planet’s systems, exerting a profound influence over the environment and virtually all forms of life, including human civilization. Its significance is evident across several key domains:

• Biodiversity and Ecosystems: The prevailing climate dictates the specific types of ecosystems that can thrive in an area. It determines the kind of vegetation that grows, the composition of the soil, and the availability of water, which in turn support particular animal species. Shifts in climate can disrupt this delicate equilibrium, posing a threat to biodiversity and potentially leading to species extinction.
• Food Production: Climate is the most critical variable in agriculture. Factors such as temperature, precipitation, and seasonal patterns determine which crops can be cultivated and when. A stable and predictable climate is fundamental for global food security, as severe weather events like floods, droughts, and heatwaves can destroy crops and result in food shortages.
• Human Well-being: The climate has a direct bearing on human health. Extreme heat can lead to heat-related illnesses, while a changing climate can alter the habitats of disease-carrying insects like mosquitoes, affecting the spread of illnesses. Furthermore, climate shapes our daily routines, from the clothing we wear to the construction of our homes.
• Economic Performance: A region’s climate is a key driver of its economic activities, impacting major sectors like farming, tourism, and real estate. Climate-related catastrophes, such as hurricanes and forest fires, can inflict massive economic damage, disrupting supply chains and causing substantial financial losses.

Question 4.

State the location of the Equatorial Region.

Ans:

The Equatorial region is a geographical zone of the Earth located near the equator, extending approximately from 10° North to 10° South latitude. This area spans across portions of three continents and is characterized by its distinct climate and ecosystems.

Prominent landmasses located within this region include:

• The immense Amazon Basin, situated in South America.
• Central Africa’s expansive Congo Basin.
• The Indo-Malaysian archipelago, which encompasses countries like Indonesia and Malaysia in Southeast Asia.

Question 5.

What is the latitudinal extent of the Monsoon climate?

Ans:

The monsoon climate is primarily located in the tropical and subtropical zones of the globe. This climatic pattern is most commonly observed within a latitudinal band of approximately 10° to 25° North and South of the equator.

However, in certain areas, particularly across South Asia, the monsoon’s influence can reach as far north as 30° North latitude. This expansion is largely a result of the substantial heating of the vast continental landmass.

Question 6.

Name the two dominant types of vegetation of the Equatorial region.

Ans:

The plant life in the Equatorial region is dominated by two primary types of vegetation:

Evergreen Tropical Forests: These forests are the most prominent and defining feature of the region. They are distinguished by their incredible density and multi-layered composition, with towering trees forming a continuous canopy that remains lush and green throughout the year. This perpetual green state is a direct result of the consistent high temperatures and heavy rainfall that characterize the equatorial climate.

Epiphytes and Lianas: These two plant groups are integral to the structure of the rainforest. Epiphytes, on the other hand, are plants that grow on the surface of other plants, most commonly trees. They use their hosts for physical support but do not harm them, instead drawing moisture and nourishment directly from the humid air and frequent rainfall.

Question 7.

State the location of the Tropical Desert Climate type.

Ans:

The formation of tropical desert climates is largely due to two critical geographical influences:

First, their latitudinal position is a significant factor. These arid zones are situated in belts approximately 15° to 30° north and south of the equator. This is a result of consistent high-pressure systems in these subtropical regions. These systems cause dry, warm air to descend, which actively prevents the formation of clouds and, consequently, rainfall.

Second, their location on continents plays a crucial role. Tropical deserts are typically found on the western margins of landmasses. This is because the prevailing trade winds originate from the east, carrying moisture from the oceans. As these winds travel across the continent, they release their moisture on the eastern and central parts. By the time they reach the western coasts, the air is dry, leading to a lack of rainfall and the development of desert conditions.

Question 8.

What are xerophytic plants ?

Ans:

Xerophytic plants are a type of vegetation that has evolved specialized physiological traits enabling them to flourish in conditions with very limited water. The term originates from the Greek words for “dry” and “plant,” aptly describing their nature. These species are commonly found in arid habitats, including deserts, semi-arid plains, and even polar regions where water is frequently locked up in ice.

The primary strategy of these plants is to conserve water and prevent its loss through evaporation. To achieve this, they have developed several ingenious adaptations:

• Internal Water Reservoirs: Many xerophytes, known as succulents, store water in their thick leaves or stems, acting as a reserve to sustain them during prolonged dry periods. Classic examples include cacti and aloes.
• Minimized Surface Exposure: The leaves of these plants are often very small, or they have been modified into spines or needles. This adaptation significantly reduces the surface area exposed to sunlight and wind, thereby limiting moisture evaporation.
• Protective Outer Coatings: A thick, waxy cuticle on their leaves and stems, or a dense layer of fine hairs, helps to reflect harsh sunlight and trap moisture, which both contribute to minimizing water loss.
• Extensive Root Systems: Many non-succulent xerophytes possess deeply penetrating and widely spread root networks. This allows them to effectively draw water from a much larger volume of soil.

Question 9.

What local conditions produce variation in the Mediterranean Type of climate ?

Ans:

While the Mediterranean climate is broadly defined by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, significant variations exist from place to place due to several local conditions. These microclimates are created by the interaction of land, water, and air on a smaller scale.

• Proximity to the Sea: Coastal areas experience a moderating effect from the sea, resulting in a narrower range of temperatures. Inland areas, being farther from this marine influence, can have hotter, drier summers and colder winters with a wider diurnal temperature range.
• Altitude and Topography: Elevation plays a crucial role. Higher altitudes are generally cooler and receive more precipitation than lower-lying areas, sometimes even experiencing snowfall in winter that is absent at sea level. Mountain ranges can also create a “rain shadow” effect, where one side receives the majority of the winter rainfall from westerly winds, leaving the leeward side significantly drier.
• Local Winds: Specific regional wind patterns can dramatically alter local conditions. Conversely, the Sirocco is a hot, dusty wind from the Sahara Desert that can bring scorching heat and high temperatures to parts of Southern Europe during summer. These winds intensify the local characteristics of the seasons.

Question 10.

State the rainfall pattern in the Mediterranean climate.

Ans:

The Mediterranean climate is distinguished by a sharply contrasting seasonal rainfall pattern. The most notable feature is the profound difference in precipitation between the summer and winter months.

Summers are arid, with the region receiving very little to no rain. During this period, high-pressure systems move over the area, creating stable atmospheric conditions and clear skies that effectively suppress the formation of rain clouds. This results in a long, hot, and dry season.

The bulk of the year’s precipitation is concentrated in the winter. As the high-pressure zones migrate, they are replaced by low-pressure systems and westerly winds that bring moisture. The rainfall is generally moderate but can sometimes occur in heavy, intense downpours.

Question 11.

What type of vegetation is found in the Mediterranean region ?

Ans:

The Mediterranean region is home to a unique type of vegetation adapted to withstand its distinct climate of hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. This flora is dominated by a group of hardy plants known as sclerophyllous vegetation.

These plants have evolved several key features to survive the summer drought:

• Hard-Leaved Evergreen Trees: Trees like olive, cork oak, and citrus have small, tough, and often waxy leaves to minimize water loss through transpiration.
• Shrubs and Bushes: Dense, woody shrubs form scrublands known by various regional names like “maquis” or “chaparral.” Examples include rosemary, lavender, and myrtle, many of which are aromatic and drought-resistant.
• Deep Root Systems: Many plants have long taproots to access underground water sources, allowing them to remain green through the dry season.
• Fire Adaptations: The vegetation is often fire-resistant, with some species even requiring fire for their seeds to germinate.

Question 12.

Name six Temperate Grasslands of the world.

Ans:

Temperate grasslands are vast, treeless plains with a continental climate, and they are known by different names in various parts of the world. Six prominent examples are:

1. Prairies (North America)
2. Pampas (South America)
3. Steppes (Eurasia)
4. Veld (Southern Africa)
5. Downs (Australia)
6. Pustaz (Hungary, Europe)

Question 13.

Why are there no trees in the Steppe type climate region?

Ans:

The Steppe type climate region is characterized by a lack of trees primarily due to a combination of environmental factors that are unfavorable for their growth.

• Insufficient Rainfall: Steppe regions are semi-arid and receive a low amount of annual precipitation, typically between 250 and 500 mm. This is enough to support grasses, which have shallow root systems, but is generally insufficient for the deep root systems of most trees to thrive.
• Extreme Temperatures: These regions experience a continental climate with very hot summers and severely cold winters. This wide annual and daily temperature range creates a harsh environment that few tree species can endure.
• High Evaporation: The combination of hot summers and constant wind leads to a high rate of evaporation. Any moisture that does fall quickly evaporates from the soil, leaving very little for trees to absorb.

Question 14.

What is the temperature range in winter of the Cool Continental Climate Type ?

Ans:

The Cool Continental climate, often labeled as Dfb in the Köppen classification, is situated in the middle to upper latitudes of continents, far from the moderating influence of large bodies of water. Consequently, these areas are subject to dramatic temperature differences between summer and winter.

A defining feature of this climate is its notably harsh winters. The average temperature of the coldest month consistently falls well below the freezing point. Typical average winter temperatures can range from -18°C to -3°C (0°F to 27°F), with even more extreme cold spells being common. This severe winter cold is a key factor that differentiates it from milder temperate climates.

Question 15.

Name the areas of the Cool Temperate Ocean type climate

Ans:

The climate type known as Cool Temperate Oceanic, often referred to as the Marine West Coast climate, is situated on the western coastal margins of continents within the middle latitudes, generally spanning from 40° to 65° latitude in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

This specific climatic zone appears in several key global locations. In Europe, it covers a considerable portion of the northwest, encompassing the British Isles, much of France, the Benelux countries (Belgium and the Netherlands), and extending into parts of the Scandinavian peninsula. Along the western coastline of North America, this climate is present in a continuous strip from southern Alaska down through the Pacific Northwest of the United States and into Canada’s British Columbia. Similarly, in the Southern Hemisphere, it is found along the coast of southern Chile, the southeastern coast of Australia, and it is the predominant climate for both New Zealand and the island of Tasmania.

Question 16.

Give the annual rainfall of the above tropical region.

Ans:

The tropical grassland, commonly known as the savanna, is a region that typically receives between 80 to 150 centimeters of precipitation annually.

A defining feature of this climate is the highly uneven distribution of this rainfall throughout the year.The vast majority of the total yearly rainfall is concentrated within the wet season, which is a crucial element that shapes the entire savanna ecosystem.

II. Give reasons for each of the following 

Question 1.
There is a uniformly high temperature in the Equatorial region.
Ans:

The consistently high temperatures experienced in the Equatorial region stem from its specific position on the globe and its interaction with the sun’s energy.

• Vertical Solar Rays: The sun’s light strikes the equatorial surface at a nearly perpendicular angle all year long. This concentration of solar radiation over a small surface area leads to a more intense heating effect than in regions where sunlight hits at a slanted angle and is spread out over a wider area.
• Negligible Seasonal Change: The Earth’s spherical shape and axis tilt mean that the sun’s position relative to the equator shifts very little throughout the year. This stability ensures that the region receives a uniform amount of solar energy every day, preventing significant temperature fluctuations and creating a climate with no distinct seasons.
• Balanced Day and Night Cycle: This reliable cycle provides a consistent period of solar heating, contributing to the uniform and high temperatures that define the equatorial climate.

Question 2.

Deciduous trees shed their leaves in the dry season.

Ans:

Deciduous trees drop their leaves as a survival strategy to preserve their moisture and energy. This biological adaptation enables them to withstand seasons of low water availability or freezing temperatures by greatly reducing the amount of water lost through their foliage.

Question 3.

In the Tropical Desert climate region, Trade Winds are dry.

Ans:

The dryness of the Tropical Desert climate is largely a result of the Trade Winds, which are themselves arid and moisture-deficient as they blow across the region.

Question 4.

In the Mediterranean region of Europe, winds blow deep inside the land.

Ans:

During the winter months in the Mediterranean region of Europe, moisture-laden westerly winds are the primary influence. These winds blow in from the Atlantic Ocean, carrying precipitation far inland. They are a defining characteristic of the region’s climate, responsible for the cool, wet winters that contrast sharply with the hot, dry summers.

Question 5.

Tropical grasslands have great potential for the cultivation of crops like cotton and coffee.

Ans:

Tropical grasslands, commonly known as savannas, hold great promise for cultivating cash crops such as cotton and coffee. This agricultural viability is a result of the favorable climatic and soil conditions prevalent in these areas.

The climate is defined by consistently high temperatures and a well-defined cycle of wet and dry seasons. This provides the ideal warmth and sunlight needed for these crops to thrive. For instance, cotton requires a warm environment and a long growing season, with plenty of sun during its final growth and harvesting stages—conditions that align perfectly with the savanna’s dry season. Coffee also flourishes in these warm, sunny conditions.

Moreover, many tropical grasslands have laterite soils which, although not naturally rich in nutrients, can be made productive for plantation crops like coffee and tea with proper land management, including irrigation and the addition of manure. The sloping terrain common to these regions is particularly well-suited for growing coffee, as it ensures excellent drainage and prevents waterlogging, a vital requirement for both coffee and cotton plants.

Question 6.

The Taiga region is sparsely populated.

Ans:

The Taiga region is characterized by a very low population density, a direct result of its demanding and formidable environment. Several key factors contribute to this sparse habitation:

• Harsh Climate: The area endures exceptionally long and brutally cold winters, which makes survival and daily life challenging. The short summers are not warm enough to support widespread agriculture, limiting food production.
• Unsuitable Soil for Farming: The land in the Taiga is generally infertile, acidic, and often saturated with water, making it poor for cultivation. The lack of fertile land is a major obstacle to establishing large farming communities.
• Scarce Job Prospects: The main economic activities in the region, such as logging, trapping, and mining, are not employment-intensive. These industries do not create enough jobs to support a large, concentrated population.
• Difficult Terrain for Development: The expansive, thick forests and permanently frozen ground make it extremely difficult and expensive to construct vital infrastructure like roads, railways, and utilities, which are necessary for the growth of urban centers.

Question 7.

There are no trees in the Tundra Region.

Ans:

The lack of trees in the Tundra is a direct result of several severe environmental challenges. The most significant factor is the layer of permafrost, or permanently frozen soil, which lies just below the surface. This frozen ground makes it impossible for trees to establish the deep and stable root systems necessary for their survival and to absorb essential nutrients.

Furthermore, the region’s climate provides a very brief and cool growing season, which is simply not long enough for large trees to mature. Powerful, cold winds also contribute to the harsh conditions; they can physically damage plants and cause desiccation, or extreme drying, which prevents taller vegetation from thriving. Consequently, the Tundra ecosystem is dominated by a rugged ground cover of low-lying plants, such as mosses, lichens, and small shrubs.

Question 8.

Patagonia is a desert in the rain shadow of the Andes.

Ans:

The dry climate of the Patagonian Desert is a consequence of the rain shadow created by the Andes Mountains.

Moisture-rich winds from the Pacific are compelled to climb the towering Andes. This upward movement cools the air, causing its water vapor to condense and fall as precipitation on the western, ocean-facing slopes.

The resulting dry air mass contributes to the vast, arid landscape that defines Patagonia.

III. Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Describe the general characteristics of natural regions. “Name four major natural regions in the world.
Ans:

A natural region is a geographical area defined by a consistent set of physical characteristics, such as its climate, landforms, and the biological communities it supports. This consistency creates a unique environment that defines the local ecosystem.

Defining Characteristics of Natural Regions

• Climate: The primary factor, determining long-term patterns of temperature, precipitation, and air movement.
• Topography and Geology: The land’s physical shape and its underlying rock and soil composition.
• Vegetation: The plant life, which is a direct result of the climate and soil.
• Fauna: The animal species adapted to the specific conditions of the region.
• Hydrography: The presence and characteristics of water bodies.

Four Major Natural Regions

1. Equatorial Regions: Hot and humid year-round with high rainfall, supporting tropical rainforests.
2. Tropical Deserts: Extremely arid with very little rainfall and high temperatures.
3. Cool Temperate Zones: Experience four distinct seasons, supporting deciduous and coniferous forests.
4. Polar Regions: Defined by intense cold, with permanent ice caps or tundra.

Question 2.

State the factors of responsible for climatic classification of natural regions

Ans:

The classification of natural regions according to their climate is determined by a set of interacting factors that shape an area’s long-term weather conditions. These are the most critical factors:

• Latitude: This is the primary influence. It dictates how much solar energy a region receives. Areas closer to the equator get direct, intense sunlight, leading to higher temperatures. In contrast, regions near the poles receive sunlight at a lower angle, making them much colder.
• Altitude: As a location’s elevation above sea level increases, its temperature decreases. This explains why mountaintops are cold and often covered in snow, even in tropical latitudes.
• Proximity to Water: The presence of large water bodies like oceans or major lakes has a moderating effect on temperature. Coastal areas typically have less extreme temperatures (cooler summers and warmer winters) because water retains heat longer than land. This is known as the maritime effect. Areas far from the coast experience a wider temperature range, a condition called continentality.
• Ocean Currents: These global flows of water transport heat and cold across the planet. A warm current can raise the temperature of a nearby coastal region, while a cold current can lower it.
• Prevailing Winds: The direction and origin of a region’s dominant winds are crucial. Winds coming from the sea can carry moisture, leading to higher rainfall. Conversely, winds from a large landmass are often dry. The movement of different air masses, such as warm tropical air or cold polar air, also affects a region’s temperature and precipitation.
• Topography: The land’s physical features, particularly mountains, play a significant role. Mountains can act as barriers, forcing moist air to rise and release its rain on the windward side, creating a rain shadow on the leeward side, which remains dry.

Question 3.

Give a brief account of Rainforests together with their location and types of trees.

Ans:

Rainforests are forests characterized by exceptionally high rainfall, which supports a dense and diverse array of plant and animal life. They are divided into two main types: tropical and temperate.

Tropical Rainforests

• Characteristics: These regions are defined by consistently hot, humid, and wet conditions year-round, with no dry season. They are known for their incredibly high biodiversity, with a vast number of plant and animal species. 
• Location: Found in the equatorial zone, roughly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The largest and most famous tropical rainforests are in the Amazon Basin (South America), the Congo Basin (Africa), and Southeast Asia (Indonesia and Malaysia).
• Types of Trees: The trees are predominantly broad-leaved evergreens that form a dense canopy. Notable examples include the Kapok tree, which can reach the emergent layer, the rubber tree, known for its latex, and various species of figs, palms, and mahogany. These forests also have many lianas (woody vines) and epiphytes (plants that grow on other trees), such as orchids and ferns, which thrive by clinging to the trees to access sunlight.

Temperate Rainforests

• Characteristics: Unlike their tropical counterparts, temperate rainforests have cooler, more moderate temperatures, experiencing four distinct seasons. They are still defined by very high annual precipitation, often from moisture-laden air from the ocean interacting with coastal mountains. The biodiversity is generally lower than in tropical rainforests.
• Location: Major locations include the Pacific Northwest of North America (from Alaska to Northern California), southern Chile, parts of Australia and New Zealand, and small pockets in places like the UK and Japan.
• Types of Trees: The trees in temperate rainforests are primarily evergreen conifers. Common species include the Sitka spruce, Western hemlock, and Western red cedar. Some of the tallest trees on Earth, such as the Coastal redwood, are found in these regions. The understory often contains various ferns, mosses, and lichens that flourish in the damp, cool conditions.

Question 4.

Discuss the vegetation of the Tropical Monsoon type climate.

Ans:

The vegetation in tropical monsoon climates is highly adapted to the distinct seasonal changes, which are characterized by a pronounced wet season followed by a lengthy dry season. This contrasts with the year-round rainfall of equatorial regions and the consistently dry conditions of deserts. As a result, the vegetation is typically a tropical deciduous forest, which sheds its leaves during the dry season to conserve water.

Key Characteristics of Tropical Monsoon Vegetation:

• Deciduous Nature: The most defining feature is that the trees are deciduous. They drop their leaves in the hot, dry season to reduce water loss through transpiration and then regrow them during the wet monsoon season. This is a crucial adaptation for survival in a climate with seasonal water scarcity.
• Variable Density: The density of the vegetation is directly related to the amount of rainfall. In areas with heavier rainfall, the forests can be dense and resemble evergreen rainforests, though with a different species composition. In drier areas, the vegetation is more open, with trees scattered across a grassland or savanna-like landscape.
• Stratified Structure: Like other tropical forests, monsoon forests have a layered structure. A canopy layer of tall trees (12-30 meters), a shorter understory of trees, a shrub layer, and a ground layer of herbaceous plants. However, the density of these layers is generally less than in an equatorial rainforest.
• Adaptations for the Dry Season: The plants have developed specific characteristics to endure the dry period. Trees often have thick, rough bark to protect against fires and moisture loss. Leaves, when present, can be large during the wet season to maximize photosynthesis but may be small and hard in drier conditions to conserve water.
• Dominant Species: Common and economically important trees found in these regions include teak, sal, bamboo, and sandalwood. These species are valued for their durable wood.
• Lianas and Epiphytes: While present, the number of lianas (woody vines) and epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants) is significantly less than in the perpetually humid equatorial rainforests.

Question 5.

Bring out the chief characteristics of the Mediterranean type climate.

Ans:

The Mediterranean climate, prevalent in regions like the Mediterranean Basin, is a distinctive and highly sought-after climate type defined by a unique seasonal cycle. Its primary features are shaped by a specific rainfall pattern that is the inverse of many other climate zones.

Defining Characteristics of the Mediterranean Climate

• Wet Winters, Dry Summers: The most striking characteristic is the rainfall pattern. The bulk of precipitation falls during the mild winter months, while the summers are consistently hot and dry. This seasonal flip is a defining trait.
• Hot, Arid Summers: The summer season is marked by high temperatures and a prolonged absence of rain. This dryness is caused by the influence of the subtropical high-pressure zone, which shifts poleward during the summer, bringing stable, sinking air that prevents cloud formation and rain.
• Mild, Rainy Winters: Winters in this climate are gentle and receive consistent rainfall, though it’s typically not torrential. Freezing temperatures are rare. 
• Moderate Temperature Swings: The presence of a large body of water, such as the Mediterranean Sea, helps to temper the climate. The temperature difference between the average summer and winter months is less extreme than in landlocked regions at similar latitudes.
• Xerophytic Vegetation: The native plant life is perfectly adapted to withstand the long, hot, and dry summers. These plants are xerophytic, or drought-tolerant. They often have small, waxy leaves to minimize water loss, deep root systems to access groundwater, and thick bark for protection. Iconic examples include olive trees, grapevines, citrus trees, and aromatic herbs like lavender and rosemary.

Question 6.

Differentiate between Mediterranean type climate and China type climate.

Ans:

Feature	Mediterranean Type Climate	China Type Climate
Location	Found on the western margins of continents, typically between 30° and 45° latitude.	Found on the eastern margins of continents, between 20° and 35° latitude.
Rainfall Season	Characterized by a distinct seasonal pattern of winter rainfall and dry summers.	Receives rainfall throughout the year, but with a marked summer maximum due to monsoons.
Causes of Rainfall	Winter rainfall is brought by the onshore westerly winds and cyclonic depressions. The dry summer is caused by the poleward shift of the subtropical high-pressure belt.	Summer rainfall is caused by the onshore flow of warm, moist air from the ocean (summer monsoon). Winter rainfall is less, coming from depressions.
Temperature	Hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The temperature range is generally smaller due to the moderating influence of the sea.	Hot and humid summers and cool to cold winters. The temperature range is much larger, especially in the interior, due to the influence of continental air masses.
Prevailing Winds	Dominated by subtropical high-pressure systems in summer and by westerly winds in winter.	Dominated by seasonal monsoon winds, which reverse direction between summer and winter. In summer, winds are onshore; in winter, they are offshore.

Question 7.

Bring out the differences between the tropical and temperate deserts in terms of climate and vegetation.

Ans:

Feature	Tropical Deserts	Temperate Deserts
Location	Typically found between 15∘ and 30∘ latitude, on the western margins of continents (e.g., Sahara, Arabian Desert).	Located in the interior of continents, often in rain shadow areas, between 30∘ and 50∘ latitude (e.g., Gobi, Great Basin).
Climate
Temperature	Extremely hot with high daytime temperatures, often exceeding $40^{\circ}$C ($104^{\circ}$F). Nights can be cool due to rapid heat loss.	Characterized by extreme seasonal temperature variations. Summers are hot, but winters are very cold, often dropping below freezing.
Rainfall	Very low and unpredictable, usually less than 250 mm (10 inches) per year.	Low and variable rainfall, typically less than 250 mm (10 inches) per year. Precipitation can occur as snow in the winter.
Vegetation
Plant Types	Sparse, consisting of drought-resistant (xerophytic) plants such as cacti, succulents, and thorny shrubs. Plants are adapted to survive long periods of heat and dryness.	Also sparse, but plants are adapted to tolerate both extreme heat and freezing temperatures. Common types include sagebrush, small grasses, and low, woody shrubs.
Adaptations	Plants often have thick, fleshy stems to store water, waxy coatings to reduce transpiration, and deep or widespread root systems to absorb moisture.	Plants have adaptations for both cold and dry conditions. They may have fine, hairy leaves to trap moisture and reflect sunlight, and are often able to go dormant during the cold winter months.
Density	Very low plant density with significant bare ground between plants.	Plant density is also low, but vegetation may appear more continuous in some areas, especially during the spring bloom.

Question 8.
Prepare the rainfall graph of the data given below and answer the questions that follow :

(a) What is the average annual temperature ?
(b) Calculate the annual range of temperature.
(c) In which climate type is this station ?

Ans:

(a) Average annual temperature is 27.2°C. (26.9 + 27.6 + 28.7 + 29.1 + 28.4 + 26.5 + 25.9 + 26.0 + 26.4 + 26.8 + 27.1 + 26.9) ÷ 12 = 326.3 ÷ 12 = 27.2
(b) Range of temperature is 3.2° C. 29.1 – 25.9 = 3.2
(c) The climatic type is equatorial climate.

Practice Questions (Solved)

Question 1.
What do you understand about a ‘natural resource’ ?
Ans:

A natural resource is any substance or energy source that exists in nature and is utilized by humans for their benefit. These resources are not man-made and are fundamental to sustaining human life, powering economies, and serving as the foundational materials for many industries.

Core Attributes of Natural Resources

• Natural Origin: They are derived exclusively from the Earth’s natural systems, not from human processes.
• Human Usefulness: Their value is defined by their practical application, whether it’s for basic survival needs, generating power, or as raw material for manufacturing goods.
• Uneven Distribution: The presence and quantity of these resources are not uniform across the globe; some are abundant and widespread, while others are scarce and localized to specific regions.
• Need for Management: Responsible and sustainable management practices are crucial to ensure their long-term availability and to prevent negative environmental impacts from their extraction and use.

Classification of Natural Resources

Renewable Resources: These resources are capable of replenishing themselves naturally over a short period. Their use is sustainable as long as the rate of consumption does not surpass their rate of regeneration.

• Examples: Solar energy, wind power, water (via the hydrologic cycle), forests (when managed sustainably), and biological mass.

Non-Renewable Resources: These resources are finite and exist in fixed quantities. 

• Examples: Fossil fuels (including coal, petroleum, and natural gas) and mineral resources like iron ore, gold, and copper.

Question 2.

How many kinds of natural resources are available ? Name them.

Ans:

Natural resources can be classified in various ways, but they are most commonly categorized based on their renewability and origin.

Based on Renewability:

This is the most widely used classification, dividing resources into two main groups based on whether they can be naturally replenished over time.

1. Renewable Resources: These are resources that are either continuously available or can be replenished naturally over a relatively short period. While some, like sunlight and wind, are perpetually available, others can be depleted if they are used faster than they can regenerate.
   • Examples: Sunlight, wind energy, water, forests, soil, and wildlife.
2. Non-Renewable Resources: These resources are finite and cannot be renewed or regenerated on a human timescale. They were formed over millions of years through geological processes.
   • Examples: Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas), and various minerals and metals (iron, gold, copper, etc.).

Based on Origin:

This classification divides resources into two groups based on whether they are derived from living or non-living sources.

1. Biotic Resources: They are generally renewable, but their renewal depends on sustainable management.
   • Examples: Forests and their products, animals, and agricultural crops.
2. Abiotic Resources: These resources are derived from non-living things. They can be either renewable or non-renewable.
   • Examples: Land, water, air, and minerals like iron ore and gold.

Question 3.

What are the various uses of wood ?

Ans:

Wood is an ancient and highly versatile material valued for its strength, workability, and renewability. Its applications are extensive and can be grouped into several key categories.

1. Construction: Wood is a primary building material, used for structural framing, flooring, doors, and window frames. Engineered wood products like plywood and glulam beams provide enhanced stability for modern construction.

2. Furniture and Household Items: The natural beauty and durability of wood make it ideal for crafting furniture like tables and chairs, as well as kitchenware and musical instruments, where its acoustic properties are prized.

4. Paper and Packaging: Wood pulp is the essential raw material for the paper industry, producing all types of paper and cardboard. It is also used to make strong, reusable pallets and crates for shipping goods.

5. Miscellaneous Uses: The versatility of wood extends to many other areas, including sports equipment (bats, sticks), art (carvings), outdoor structures (fences, decks), and even in the production of various chemicals and materials.

Question 4.

Why are coal and petroleum called fossil fuels ?

Ans:

Coal and petroleum are known as fossil fuels because they are derived from the remains of ancient living organisms. 

Here’s a breakdown of the process:

• Ancient Life: Millions of years ago, the Earth’s surface was home to vast swamps and oceans filled with dense vegetation and tiny marine organisms like plankton.
• Burial and Decomposition: When these plants and animals died, their remains settled at the bottom of these bodies of water. Over immense periods, layers of sand, silt, and rock covered these organic remains.
• Geological Transformation: Buried deep beneath the surface, these remains were subjected to a combination of intense heat and pressure from the overlying layers. With no oxygen present, the organic matter couldn’t fully decompose.
• Formation of Fuels: This geological process, taking millions of years, slowly converted the dead plant matter into coal and the marine organisms into petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas.

Question 5.

What are the benefits of non-conventional sources of energy?

Ans:

Renewable, or non-conventional, energy sources provide crucial benefits that are essential for addressing the environmental and economic challenges posed by traditional fossil fuels. These advantages position them as a foundation for building a sustainable and resilient energy system.

Environmental Advantages

• Minimized Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power produce virtually no greenhouse gases during operation. This is fundamental for reducing a nation’s carbon footprint and is a key strategy in the global effort to combat climate change.
• Enhanced Air and Water Purity: By substituting power generation from fossil fuels, these sources significantly reduce the emission of harmful pollutants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. The result is cleaner air, a decrease in respiratory illnesses, and a lower risk of water pollution.
• Sustainability: In contrast to fossil fuels, which are finite, renewable resources are continuously replenished. The consistent availability of sunlight, wind, and water provides a perpetual energy supply that can be used indefinitely.

Economic and Social Advantages

• Improved Energy Security: By utilizing domestic resources, nations can lessen their dependence on foreign fossil fuels. This leads to greater energy independence and protects their economies from the unpredictability of global energy markets and geopolitical instability.
• Job Creation and Economic Development: The renewable energy sector is a significant driver of economic growth, creating a diverse range of jobs in manufacturing, installation, upkeep, and research. This employment growth frequently surpasses that of the fossil fuel industry and stimulates local economies.
• Long-Term Financial Viability: Although the initial investment for renewable energy infrastructure can be substantial, the operational costs are considerably lower. Once installed, the “fuel” (sunlight, wind) is free, which leads to more stable energy costs and reduced utility expenses over time.
• Decentralized Power Generation: Many renewable technologies, especially solar power, are suitable for decentralized use. This allows electricity to be generated and consumed locally, which reduces transmission losses and can provide power to remote and rural areas that are not connected to the central grid.
• Reduced Maintenance: Renewable energy systems often have fewer moving parts compared to conventional power plants, leading to lower maintenance costs and a longer operational lifespan.

Question 6.

What is the difference between sea water and fresh water?

Ans:

Feature	Seawater	Freshwater
Salinity (Salt Content)	High (approximately 3.5% or 35 parts per thousand). Contains a high concentration of dissolved salts, primarily sodium chloride.	Low (less than 0.05% or 0.5 parts per thousand). Contains minimal dissolved salts.
Source	The world’s oceans and seas. The salt comes from the gradual erosion of rocks on land, which is carried by rivers into the sea.	Rivers, lakes, ponds, glaciers, ice caps, and groundwater. Its source is primarily precipitation (rain and snow).
Density	Denser than freshwater due to the dissolved salts. This higher density makes objects more buoyant, which is why it’s easier to float in the ocean.	Less dense than seawater.
Freezing Point	Lower than freshwater, typically around -1.8°C (28.8°F). The salt in the water disrupts the formation of ice crystals.	Higher than seawater, at 0°C (32°F).
Boiling Point	Slightly higher than freshwater.	100°C (212°F) at sea level.
Biodiversity	Supports a wide variety of marine life adapted to a high-salt environment, such as sharks, whales, and coral.	Supports life forms adapted to low-salt conditions, including various fish, amphibians, insects, and aquatic plants.
Drinkability	Not safe for human consumption. Drinking it can lead to dehydration as the kidneys must use the body’s water to flush out the excess salt.	Safe for consumption after proper treatment and purification, and is the primary source of drinking water for humans.

Question 7.

What is the total percentage of fresh water on the earth?

Ans:

Despite the fact that water covers most of the Earth, a very small amount is actually available for human use. 

Here is a simple breakdown of the world’s water:

Saltwater: Approximately 97.5% of all water is saltwater, found in oceans and seas. This is not suitable for drinking, farming, or most industrial uses without expensive processing.

Freshwater: The other 2.5% is freshwater, but most of it is not easy to get to.

• Ice: The biggest part of freshwater, about 68.7%, is locked up in glaciers and ice caps.
• Underground: A significant portion, about 30.1%, is groundwater stored in underground layers called aquifers. This is a crucial source but can be hard and costly to access.
• Surface Water: The smallest, and most accessible, part of freshwater (less than 1.5% of the total freshwater supply) is found in rivers, lakes, and swamps.

Question 8.

What is a hydro logical cycle ?

Ans:

The hydrologic cycle, also known as the water cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. It describes how water in its various states—liquid, vapor, and solid—circulates through the environment without a beginning or end.

The cycle is driven by solar energy, which provides the heat necessary for evaporation. The primary processes involved in the hydrologic cycle are:

1. Evaporation and Transpiration: Solar energy heats water in oceans, lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water, turning it into vapor. This vapor rises into the atmosphere. Similarly, plants release water vapor into the air through a process called transpiration.
2. Precipitation: When the clouds become saturated, the water droplets or ice crystals fall back to the Earth’s surface in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
3. Collection and Runoff: The water that reaches the Earth’s surface can follow several paths. Some of it soaks into the ground (infiltration) and becomes groundwater. 
4. Sublimation and Deposition: In colder climates, water can transition directly from a solid (ice/snow) to a gas (sublimation) and back again (deposition) without becoming liquid.

Question 9.

What gases does air contain ?

Ans:

The air that surrounds our planet is a blend of several gases, with its composition remaining largely stable worldwide. The two most prominent components are nitrogen and oxygen, while other gases and suspended particles are present in lesser quantities.

Principal Components of the Atmosphere

The primary gases in the atmosphere, by volume, are:

• Nitrogen (N2​): Although it is relatively unreactive, nitrogen is a fundamental building block for life, as it is a key element in proteins and DNA.
• Oxygen (O2​): Making up roughly 21% of the atmosphere, oxygen is crucial for most life forms, as it is required for cellular respiration. It is also a necessary component for fires and other combustion processes.
• Argon (Ar): This noble gas accounts for approximately 0.9% of the air. It is inert, meaning it does not typically form chemical bonds with other elements.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2​): Despite its very low concentration of about 0.04%, carbon dioxide is vital. Plants use it for photosynthesis, and it is a powerful greenhouse gas that traps heat, helping to regulate the Earth’s temperature.

Other Atmospheric Constituents

Beyond these main gases, the air also contains:

• Water Vapor (H2​O): The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is highly variable. It can range from nearly zero in very dry climates to as much as 4% in humid, tropical environments. It is essential for the water cycle and acts as a significant greenhouse gas.
• Trace Gases: The remaining fraction of the atmosphere consists of very small amounts of other gases, including neon (Ne), helium (He), methane (CH4​), krypton (Kr), and hydrogen (H2​). 

Question 10.

Name the gases that are found in air along with their percentage.

Ans:

The air in Earth’s atmosphere is a blend of several gases, with the percentages below representing its composition when moisture is excluded. The concentration of water vapor can change significantly depending on location and climate.

• Nitrogen (N2​): Makes up about 78.08% of the atmosphere.
• Oxygen (O2​): Constitutes roughly 20.95% of the air.
• Argon (Ar): Accounts for approximately 0.93%.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2​): Is present in a very small amount, around 0.04%.
• Trace Gases: The remaining fraction, which is less than 0.01%, includes gases like neon (Ne), helium (He), methane (CH4​), krypton (Kr), and hydrogen (H2​).

Question 11.

Why is oxygen essential ?

Ans:

Oxygen is a foundational element for the survival of the majority of life on Earth, taking on a critical role in a central biological function.

The Significance of Oxygen

The importance of oxygen is highlighted by its participation in several key processes:

• Cellular Respiration: This is the cellular process of converting food into energy. In this process, oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, a crucial step for the efficient creation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the primary energy currency for cells, powering virtually all metabolic activities. Without oxygen, organisms can only produce a tiny fraction of the energy they need to live, which explains why oxygen deprivation is so quickly lethal.
• Combustion: Outside of biology, oxygen is a prerequisite for combustion. It’s a highly reactive gas that combines with other elements in a process that generates energy as heat and light. This principle is fundamental to many human activities, from running vehicle engines to producing electricity.
• Support for Aquatic Life: Oxygen is just as vital for aquatic life as it is for life on land. Without a sufficient supply of dissolved oxygen, these ecosystems would not be able to support life.

Question 12.

How is carbon dioxide useful ?

Ans:

Carbon dioxide (CO2​) is a crucial gas that is often associated with its role in climate change, but it is also highly useful in both natural processes and industrial applications.

In Nature:

• Photosynthesis: This is the most fundamental use of carbon dioxide. Plants, algae, and some bacteria use CO2​ from the atmosphere along with water and sunlight to create glucose (sugar) for energy and growth. This process is the foundation of almost all food chains on Earth, and it also releases oxygen as a byproduct, which is essential for most animal life.
• Greenhouse Effect: Carbon dioxide is a natural greenhouse gas. It traps heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, preventing it from escaping into space. Without this natural greenhouse effect, the Earth’s surface would be too cold to sustain life.

In Industry and Commerce:

• Food and Beverages: CO2​ is used to create the fizz in carbonated drinks like soda and beer. It also helps to prevent the growth of bacteria and fungi, acting as a preservative. Solid carbon dioxide, known as dry ice, is a highly effective refrigerant for freezing and transporting food products.
• Fire Extinguishers: Because carbon dioxide is non-flammable and heavier than air, it can be used to extinguish fires. It displaces oxygen, which is necessary for combustion, and also has a cooling effect on the flames.
• Industrial Processes: CO2​ has a variety of industrial uses. It can be used as a shield gas in welding to protect the molten metal from oxidation. It is also used to inflate life rafts and life jackets, and in the production of urea, a common fertilizer.
• Medical and Surgical Use: In medicine, carbon dioxide is used as an insufflation gas during minimally invasive surgeries (like laparoscopy) to inflate body cavities, giving surgeons a better view of the organs. It can also be used as a respiratory stimulant.

Question 13.

How does an air conditioner help ?

Ans:

An air conditioner offers multiple benefits beyond its primary function of cooling a space. While its main role is to enhance indoor comfort, it also has significant impacts on health, efficiency, and the preservation of personal property.

How Air Conditioners Work

An air conditioner does not create coldness; rather, it operates by removing heat from an indoor area and transferring it to the outside. This process is similar to that of a refrigerator. The system relies on a special chemical refrigerant that cycles through a series of coils.

• Heat Absorption: An internal fan draws warm air from the room over a cold evaporator coil. The liquid refrigerant inside this coil absorbs the heat, which causes it to turn into a gas.
• Heat Expulsion: A fan in this unit blows air across a condenser coil. As the heat is released, the refrigerant cools down and becomes a liquid again.
• Continuous Cycle: The cool, liquid refrigerant is then pumped back to the indoor unit, and the process repeats. The air that was cooled by the evaporator coil is circulated back into the room, effectively lowering the temperature.

Advantages of Using an Air Conditioner

This system provides several key benefits:

• Temperature Regulation: The most obvious advantage is the ability to maintain a comfortable temperature indoors, which is especially important during hot periods to prevent heat-related health issues.
• Enhanced Air Quality: Many contemporary air conditioners are equipped with filters that trap airborne particles like dust, pollen, and pet dander. 
• Improved Productivity and Sleep: A cool, comfortable setting is more conducive to concentration and work. It also promotes better sleep, as a hot room can interfere with a good night’s rest.
• Protection of Property: High temperatures and humidity can damage electronics, cause wood furniture to warp, and degrade other items. An air conditioner helps protect these belongings by maintaining a stable indoor climate.

Question 14.

name five resources which we get from the earth.

Ans:

• Water
• Minerals
• Soil
• Fossil Fuels
• Air

Question 15.

What does subsoil contain ?

Ans:

Subsoil, also known as the B horizon, is the layer of soil located just below the topsoil. It’s distinct from topsoil in a few key ways:

• Minerals: Subsoil is a site of accumulation for minerals like iron and aluminum oxides, and clay. These materials are leached (washed) down from the topsoil by rainfall.
• Organic Matter: It contains significantly less organic matter, or humus, compared to topsoil. This is why it’s typically lighter in color.
• Density: This can make it harder for plant roots to penetrate and for water and air to move through.
• Biological Activity: Due to the lower organic matter and denser nature, there is much less biological activity in the subsoil. You’ll find fewer earthworms, insects, and microorganisms compared to the vibrant ecosystem of the topsoil.

Question 16.

What are minerals ? List any four minerals.

Ans:

This ordered arrangement is responsible for the unique physical characteristics of each mineral.

Here are four examples of minerals:

1. Quartz: A very widespread mineral consisting of silicon and oxygen (SiO2​). It is a significant component of numerous rocks, including granite, and has extensive applications ranging from glass manufacturing to electronics.
2. Gold: It is highly valued for its scarcity, ability to be shaped, and resistance to tarnish, making it ideal for jewelry, currency, and high-tech components.
3. Calcite: Composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3​), calcite is the main constituent of rocks like limestone and marble. It is utilized in cement production and as a soil additive in farming.
4. Halite: Also known as rock salt, this mineral has the chemical formula sodium chloride (NaCl). It is not only crucial for human nutrition but is also used on a large scale for de-icing roads and in various industrial processes.

Question 17.

What type of resources are minerals ?

Ans:

Minerals are considered non-renewable resources because they are formed over geological timescales that are immense, often taking millions of years. Human consumption and extraction of these resources occur at a pace that is significantly faster than their natural regeneration.

• Metallic minerals: These are minerals valued for the metals they contain, such as iron, copper, gold, and aluminum.
• Non-metallic minerals: These are resources prized for their non-metal characteristics, including substances like sand, gravel, gypsum, and halite (salt).

Question 18.

How do forests retain water ?

Ans:

Forests excel at managing water thanks to their unique structure and the composition of the forest floor. They act as natural reservoirs through several mechanisms:

• Canopy Interception: The leaves and branches of trees form a natural shield that catches rainfall before it reaches the ground. This process slows the rain’s descent, reducing its impact force. The slower, gentler rain then has a better chance to be absorbed by the soil, preventing surface runoff and erosion.
• Porous Forest Floor: The ground in a forest is typically covered with a thick layer of decomposing organic material like leaves and twigs. This spongy, absorbent layer soaks up vast amounts of water, much like a sponge, effectively preventing it from flowing away and holding it in place.
• Root Systems: The expansive network of tree and plant roots anchors the soil, preventing it from being washed away. These roots also create small channels and pathways within the ground, which significantly improves the soil’s ability to absorb water and allows it to penetrate to deeper layers.
• Groundwater Replenishment: By slowing the flow of water and promoting its absorption into the soil, forests are critical for refilling underground water sources, or aquifers. This slow and steady release of water helps to ensure a consistent flow in rivers and streams, reducing the likelihood of both flash floods and dry periods.
• Shade and Humidity: The dense overhead canopy provides shade, which keeps the forest floor cooler and more humid. This environment reduces the rate at which water evaporates from the soil, allowing more of it to be retained and stored within the ground.

Question 19.

What is meant by deforestation ?

Ans:

Deforestation is the permanent removal of forests for other uses, preventing the land from regenerating into a woodland ecosystem. The primary drivers are human activities, including:

• Logging: Harvesting trees for timber, paper, and other wood products.
• Urbanization: Expanding cities and infrastructure require clearing forested areas.
• Mining: Extracting minerals necessitates the removal of forest cover.

The consequences of deforestation are far-reaching:

• Loss of Biodiversity: Habitats are destroyed, leading to the extinction of plant and animal species.
• Soil Degradation: Without tree roots to hold soil in place, it becomes prone to erosion, increasing the risk of landslides and floods.
• Water Cycle Disruption: Forests play a key role in the water cycle, and their removal can lead to reduced rainfall and altered river flows.

Question 20.

What happens when fossil fuels are burnt ?

Ans:

When fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas are burned, a combustion reaction releases energy, but also a range of harmful byproducts into the atmosphere.

The primary product of this process is carbon dioxide (CO2​), a major greenhouse gas that traps heat and drives climate change.

Other key pollutants released include:

• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx​): These contribute to smog and acid rain.
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2​): A major cause of acid rain, which damages ecosystems and infrastructure.
• Particulate Matter: Tiny airborne particles that can lead to serious respiratory and heart problems.
• Carbon Monoxide (CO): A toxic gas resulting from incomplete burning, which is hazardous to human health.

Question 21.

List the inexhaustible sources of energy.

Ans:

Inexhaustible Sources of Energy

Inexhaustible energy sources are those that are continuously renewed by natural processes and are considered limitless. These are also commonly referred to as renewable energy sources.

• Solar energy: This power is harnessed from the sun’s light and heat. Technology like solar panels captures this energy to produce electricity or to warm water.
• Wind energy: Generated by the kinetic energy of air currents, wind power is captured by large turbines that spin a generator to create electricity.
• Hydropower: This form of energy is derived from the force of moving water, typically in rivers. 
• Tidal energy: This power source uses the natural rise and fall of ocean tides. Specialized generators are used to convert the energy from tidal currents into electricity.
• Biomass energy: This energy is created from recently living organic materials, such as plants, wood, and animal waste. It can be burned for heat or processed into biofuels.

Question 22.

Which places in India can be used for tidal power generation ?

Ans:

India has significant potential for tidal power generation in several coastal regions, primarily due to large tidal ranges and geographical features like gulfs and estuaries. The most promising locations for harnessing this renewable energy are:

• Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay) in Gujarat: This region has the highest potential for tidal power in India. The narrow, funnel-shaped gulf creates a significant tidal range, which is ideal for generating electricity.
• The Sunderbans in West Bengal: This area in the Gangetic delta, with its extensive network of creeks and estuaries, also offers potential for tidal energy.

Question 23.

How many biogas plants have been set up in India under the National Biogas Development Programme ?

Ans:

The “National Biogas Development Programme” has been succeeded by the “National Bioenergy Programme.” As of July 31, 2023, under the National Bioenergy Programme, a total of 11,143 small biogas plants and 6 BioCNG plants have been commissioned.

It’s important to note that various biogas initiatives have existed in India over the years, and the reported numbers can vary depending on the specific program and time frame. For example, some reports from past years mention millions of biogas plants being installed under previous programs. 

Question 24.

What is geothermal energy ? Give examples of geothermal energy.

Ans:

Geothermal energy is a renewable power source that utilizes the Earth’s internal heat. This heat originates from the planet’s initial formation and the continuous radioactive decay of minerals deep within the core.

This thermal power is accessed by tapping into underground reservoirs of hot water and steam. In certain areas, this heat is close to the surface, while in others, deep wells are drilled to reach it.

• Electricity Generation: Hot water or steam from these subterranean reservoirs is used to spin turbines, which are connected to generators to create electricity.
• Direct Use: The heat is used immediately for purposes like heating buildings, warming greenhouses, or providing hot water for facilities such as spas.
• Geothermal Heat Pumps: These systems take advantage of the consistent temperature of the shallow ground to efficiently heat and cool structures.

Question 25.

How is ground water formed ?

Ans:

Groundwater is mainly created through a process of infiltration and percolation.

It starts when precipitation, like rain or melting snow, hits the ground. Some of this water runs off the surface, but a large amount soaks into the soil. This initial soaking is called infiltration.

The water then continues its journey downward, pulled by gravity, in a process known as percolation. It travels through the layers of soil and rock until it reaches a layer of impermeable material, such as solid rock or dense clay, which it cannot penetrate.

Above this impermeable layer, the water fills all the available spaces, or pores, within the saturated soil and rock. The water located below the water table is what we call groundwater.

The formation rate of groundwater is influenced by several factors, including:

• Soil and Rock Type: Porous materials like sand and gravel allow water to pass through more easily than dense clay or solid rock.
• Vegetation: The root systems of plants create channels in the soil, which helps water infiltrate more quickly.
• Topography: On flatter land, water has more time to soak into the ground, whereas on steep slopes, it tends to run off faster.
• Precipitation: Slow, steady rain is more effective at replenishing groundwater than a heavy downpour, which often leads to more runoff.

Question 26.

List the advantages and disadvantages of solar energy.

Ans:

Solar energy, which harnesses the sun’s power, offers a number of compelling benefits but also presents some notable drawbacks.

Advantages of Solar Energy

• Renewable and Clean: As a perpetual resource, the sun provides a limitless supply of energy. Solar power generation is exceptionally clean, producing no greenhouse gases or air pollutants during operation, which helps combat climate change and improves air quality.
• Low Maintenance: Once installed, solar panels have no moving parts and require minimal maintenance, primarily just occasional cleaning to ensure optimal performance. This leads to very low operational costs over their long lifespan, which can exceed 25 years.
• Diverse Applications: Solar energy is highly versatile and can be used for a wide range of applications, from powering a single home to large-scale utility power plants. It is also an excellent solution for providing electricity to remote areas that are not connected to the main power grid.
• Increased Property Value: Installing a solar energy system can increase the resale value of a home, as buyers are often willing to pay more for a house with an existing, modern energy source.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy

• High Initial Cost: Although prices have been decreasing and government incentives are often available, the upfront cost remains a significant barrier for many.
• Weather Dependent: Solar energy production is directly tied to the amount of sunlight available. On cloudy, rainy, or snowy days, the efficiency of solar panels drops considerably, and they produce no power at night. This intermittency means that a backup power source or energy storage solution is necessary.
• Expensive Energy Storage: To address the issue of intermittency and have power available at night or during poor weather, a battery storage system is required. These battery systems are currently very expensive, adding a substantial cost to the overall installation.
• Space Requirements: Generating a significant amount of electricity requires a considerable number of solar panels, which in turn demands a large amount of space. This can be a challenge for residential properties with limited roof space or in densely populated urban areas.
• Manufacturing and Disposal Concerns: While solar power generation itself is clean, the manufacturing process for solar panels can involve the use of hazardous materials and consume a lot of energy. Additionally, the disposal of old solar panels at the end of their life cycle poses an environmental challenge, as improper disposal can lead to the release of toxic substances.

Question 27.

What is a hydrological cycle ?

Ans:

The hydrological cycle, more commonly known as the water cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. It’s a natural system powered primarily by solar energy and gravity, which constantly recycles the planet’s water supply.

The cycle involves several key processes:

• Evaporation and Transpiration: The sun’s heat turns liquid water from oceans, lakes, and rivers into a gas (water vapor). This process is called evaporation. Additionally, plants release water vapor into the atmosphere through their leaves in a process called transpiration.
• Condensation: As the water vapor rises into the atmosphere, it cools and turns back into tiny liquid droplets or ice crystals. These droplets gather together to form clouds.
• Precipitation: When these clouds become heavy with condensed water, gravity pulls the water back to Earth in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
• Collection and Runoff: Once precipitation reaches the ground, it can take several paths. Some of it soaks into the soil (infiltration), some is stored in glaciers and ice caps, and a large portion flows over the land’s surface into rivers, lakes, and eventually back to the oceans. This flow is called surface runoff.

Question 28.

What is the aim of dividing the world into natural regions?

Ans:

The primary goal of classifying the world into natural regions is to create a more organized and logical framework for understanding the Earth’s diverse environments and their influence on life. This approach moves beyond political boundaries to group areas that share similar fundamental natural characteristics.

Here are the key aims and benefits of this division:

• Systematic Study: It simplifies the study of geography by grouping areas with a high degree of uniformity in terms of climate, vegetation, landforms, and soil types. This allows for a more focused and comparative analysis of different parts of the world.
• Understanding Interconnections: By studying these regions, we can better understand the complex relationships between different environmental factors. For example, a specific climate type directly influences the kinds of plants and animals that can thrive there, as well as the types of human activities that are sustainable.
• Resource Management and Planning: This classification helps in developing effective strategies for resource management and conservation. Recognizing a region’s specific natural resources, like its unique forests or mineral deposits, allows for tailored approaches to their use and protection.
• Analyzing Human-Environment Interaction: Natural regions provide a context for examining how human societies adapt to and modify their environments. It helps us understand why certain occupations, settlement patterns, and cultures developed in specific areas (e.g., agriculture in fertile river valleys versus nomadic life in arid deserts).
• Biodiversity Conservation: Delineating natural regions helps in identifying and protecting unique ecosystems and habitats. This is crucial for focused conservation efforts aimed at preserving the world’s biodiversity.

Question 29.

What forms the basis of a general scheme of natural regions of the world ?

Ans:

The Earth’s surface can be divided into a variety of distinct, uniform zones known as natural regions. This classification system is built on a few core principles, even though different naming conventions exist. The following are the key factors that define these regions:

• Climate: This is a crucial element. It includes factors like temperature, rainfall, and seasonal shifts, which directly determine the types of plants and animals that can thrive in a particular area. The amount of sunlight a region receives, determined by its latitude, is the primary driver of its climate.
• Vegetation: The native plant life of a region is a direct outcome of its climate and soil. The presence of specific types of forests, grasslands, or desert plants is a defining characteristic used to identify a natural region.
• Relief and Landforms: The physical features of the landscape, such as mountains, plains, plateaus, and rivers, are very important. They influence local weather patterns, determine water flow, and affect how soil is formed, all of which contribute to a region’s unique identity.
• Soil: The kind of soil in an area is a vital factor because it controls the availability of water and nutrients for plant growth. Soil characteristics are shaped by the combination of climate, the underlying rock material, the landscape’s topography, and the activity of living organisms.
• Geology: The underlying geological structure and history of a region are key to shaping its landforms and soil composition. For example, an area with a history of volcanic activity will have different soil and topographical features compared to one formed by layers of sedimentary rock.

Question 30.
Mention the regions that cover the following :

(a) Tropical Regions
(b) Warm Temperate Regions
(c) Cool Temperate Regions
(d) Polar Regions.

Ans:

Based on their latitudinal position, natural regions can be broadly divided into four main categories:

• Tropical Regions: These areas are located between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5∘ N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5∘ S). Situated near the Equator, this zone is known for receiving consistent, intense sunlight throughout the year.
• Warm Temperate Regions: Found in the mid-latitudes, these zones are located between the tropical and cool temperate areas. They are defined by having four clear seasons, with warm summers and generally mild winters.
• Cool Temperate Regions: Occupying the higher mid-latitudes, these areas are situated between the warm temperate zones and the polar circles. 
• Polar Regions: These zones encircle the North and South Poles, typically defined as the regions north of the Arctic Circle. They are characterized by extremely low temperatures and prolonged periods of either continuous daylight or darkness.

Question 31.

Where does the tropical region lie ?

Ans:

It is specifically bounded by two important lines of latitude:

• The Tropic of Cancer, found in the Northern Hemisphere at approximately 23.5∘ N.
• The Tropic of Capricorn, located in the Southern Hemisphere at roughly 23.5∘ S.

This area is distinguished by receiving the most direct and intense solar radiation throughout the year. Consequently, it is characterized by consistently high temperatures and lacks the distinct seasonal temperature changes found in other climate zones.

Question 32.

Where does the warm temperate region lie ?

Ans:

The warm temperate zone is found in the mid-latitudes, situated between the tropical and cool temperate areas. This region typically lies between roughly 23.5∘ and 45∘ north and south of the Equator. It is characterized by four clear seasons, with warm summers and winters that are usually mild instead of severe.

Question 33.

Where does the cool temperate region lie ?

Ans:

The cool temperate region occupies the higher mid-latitudes, generally situated between the warm temperate zones and the polar circles.

This area is characterized by pronounced seasonal shifts, with warm summers giving way to very cold, often snowy, winters.

Question 34.

Where does the polar region lie ?

Ans:

The polar regions are the areas of the Earth that surround the geographic poles. Based on their latitude, they are generally defined as the zones located within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles.

• The Arctic: This is the polar region in the Northern Hemisphere, situated north of the Arctic Circle at approximately 66.5∘ N latitude. The Arctic comprises the Arctic Ocean and parts of several continents, including North America (Alaska and Canada), Europe (Norway and Greenland), and Asia (Russia).
• The Antarctic: The Antarctic is primarily made up of the continent of Antarctica and the adjacent Southern Ocean.

Question 35.

Name the continents where the equatorial regions are situated.

Ans:

• Africa
• South America
• Asia

Question 36.

Which parts of Asia and S. America included the equatorial forest region.

Ans:

The equatorial forest region is predominantly located near the equator, where the combination of high temperatures and heavy rainfall creates a perfect habitat for lush, dense forests.

In South America, the Amazon basin is the most prominent area of equatorial forest and stands as the world’s largest rainforest. This enormous expanse stretches across several nations, including:

• Brazil
• Peru
• Colombia
• Ecuador
• Venezuela
• Bolivia
• Guyana
• Suriname
• French Guiana

Additionally, the coastal lowlands between the Guyana and Brazilian highlands and a segment of the Colombian coast are also part of this region.

In Asia, the equatorial forest is primarily found in Southeast Asia. Notable areas include:

• Indonesia (encompassing islands like Sumatra and Borneo)
• Papua New Guinea
• The southern islands of the Philippines
• Portions of mainland Southeast Asia, such as parts of Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.

Question 37.

Name the areas constituting the equatorial region in Africa.

Ans:

The African equatorial region isn’t a single, precise line, but a broader geographical zone encompassing countries and parts of countries located on or very near the equator. This area is predominantly defined by its tropical rainforest climate.

Here are the primary nations generally included in Africa’s equatorial region:

• Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Republic of the Congo
• Gabon
• Equatorial Guinea
• Cameroon
• Uganda
• Kenya
• São Tomé and Príncipe

It should be noted that the phrase “equatorial region” is sometimes used more expansively to refer to a larger segment of Central and West Africa that shares a similar tropical ecosystem. This broader definition may also include nations like the Central African Republic.

Question 38.

What are the chief features of the climate of equatorial regions ?

Ans:

The equatorial regions are defined by a climate that is perpetually hot and wet, with minimal seasonal shifts. Here are the key characteristics:

• Consistent High Temperatures: Temperatures in these zones are consistently high, typically averaging around 27∘C throughout the year. There is no notable cold season or “winter.” The daily temperature fluctuation is often more significant than the annual temperature range.
• Heavy Rainfall: These areas receive substantial precipitation, frequently over 2000 mm per year.  Downpours often occur as intense, afternoon convective thunderstorms, triggered by strong solar heating and subsequent evaporation.
• High Humidity: The combination of high temperatures and frequent rain results in air that is consistently saturated with moisture. Humidity levels are typically very high, often above 80%, contributing to a muggy and heavy atmosphere.
• Dense Cloud Cover: High evaporation rates and rising air currents lead to the formation of thick, widespread cloud cover. This cloud layer helps to moderate daily temperatures, preventing them from becoming even hotter.

Question 39.

Mention the major trees found in equatorial forests.

Ans:

Equatorial forests, also known as tropical rainforests, are home to a vast diversity of trees. Prominent species include mahogany, valued for its durable reddish-brown wood used in high-quality furniture, and ebony, which is prized for its dense, dark wood used in musical instruments and decorative items.

The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is a crucial species, serving as the main source of natural latex. Other significant trees are rosewood, admired for its deep color and pleasant fragrance, making it a popular choice for fine furniture and musical instruments. The kapok tree is notable for its fibrous material, which is used as a natural stuffing. Finally, the cinchona tree is historically important, as its bark provides quinine, a compound used for centuries to treat malaria.

Question 40.

Name any four countries which have a monsoon climate.

Ans:

Countries with a Monsoon Climate

Four prominent countries with this climate are:

• India: The Indian monsoon is a well-known phenomenon, vital for the country’s agriculture.
• Bangladesh: Situated in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh experiences a strong monsoon season that is crucial for its agrarian economy.
• Thailand: The monsoon in Thailand significantly influences its climate and farming practices, particularly for rice cultivation.
• Pakistan: The country’s climate is heavily affected by the monsoon, which provides much-needed water for its agricultural sector.

This climate pattern is essential for farming, particularly for crops like rice and tea, as it provides the necessary water for their growth. 

Question 41.

Mention the location of Tropical monsoon type regions.

Ans:

The most prominent examples are found in Asia, particularly in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, including countries like:

• India
• Myanmar
• Thailand
• Laos
• Cambodia
• Vietnam
• Southern China
• Northern Australia

These regions are defined by a distinct climate with a wet summer season (driven by the monsoon winds) and a dry winter season.

Outside of Asia, tropical monsoon climates are also found in:

• Parts of West and Central Africa
• Sections of Central and South America (e.g., northeast Brazil and coastal areas)
• Some areas of the Caribbean

Question 42.

What is the range of temperature in the monsoon region in the interior of the continent?

Ans:

The range of temperature in the interior of a monsoon region is characterized by a significant difference between summer and winter. This is due to a phenomenon called continentality, where land heats up and cools down faster than the ocean, leading to more extreme temperature variations further away from the coast.

Seasonal Temperature Variation

In the interior parts of a monsoon region, such as central India, the temperature range is quite pronounced:

• Summer temperatures typically vary from 35∘C to 38∘C, but can occasionally soar much higher, sometimes reaching up to 50∘C in arid areas like the Thar Desert.
• Winter temperatures in the same regions are considerably lower, ranging from about 15∘C to 18∘C. In some northern areas, temperatures can drop below this range, especially on cold nights.

Question 43.

Why is there complete reversal of pressure gradients over Asiatic landmass ?

Ans:

The reversal of pressure gradients over the Asian continent, which is the key to the monsoon system, is caused by the difference in how land and water heat and cool. This phenomenon can be broken down by looking at what happens in the summer and winter.

Summer Monsoon

In the summer, the sun’s rays directly hit the Northern Hemisphere, causing the large Asian landmass to heat up significantly faster than the surrounding oceans. This rapid heating makes the air over the land less dense and causes it to rise, creating a strong low-pressure zone over central Asia. Meanwhile, the oceans, which heat up more slowly, have cooler, denser air above them, resulting in high-pressure areas. This pressure difference drives moisture-filled winds to blow from the high-pressure oceans toward the low-pressure land, bringing the heavy rainfall of the summer monsoon.

Winter Monsoon

The process is reversed in the winter. The sun’s rays move south, and the Asian continent cools down much more quickly than the oceans.This pressure gradient causes cold, dry winds to blow from the high-pressure landmass toward the low-pressure oceans. This results in the dry, cool conditions characteristic of the winter monsoon.

Question 44.

Name any two states of India which receive winter rainfall.

Ans:

In India, winter rainfall is caused by two main weather systems: the Northeast Monsoon and Western Disturbances.

The Northeast Monsoon brings rain to the southeastern coast of India, particularly Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, between October and December. This happens as seasonal winds from the northeast cross the Bay of Bengal and collect moisture before making landfall.

Meanwhile, Western Disturbances are storms that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and travel eastward, affecting northern and northwestern India. These systems bring crucial winter rain or snow to regions like Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, which is vital for the Rabi crops, especially wheat.

Question 45.

What is the location of a tropical desert ?

Ans:

Tropical deserts are mainly found in the subtropical high-pressure zones, roughly between 15° and 30° latitude on either side of the equator. Their placement is primarily due to a global weather pattern called the Hadley Cell. This cell involves warm, moist air rising at the equator, releasing its moisture as rain, and then moving towards the poles. As it sinks, it warms and its capacity to hold moisture increases, which prevents cloud formation and rainfall, creating the arid conditions characteristic of deserts.

Another important factor is their frequent location on the western sides of continents. This is often influenced by cold ocean currents flowing along these coasts. The cold currents cool the air above them, making it stable and stopping it from rising and forming rain-producing clouds. Consequently, the adjacent coastal areas remain extremely dry.

Notable examples of tropical deserts include:

• The Great Australian Desert: A term for the various deserts in Australia’s interior.
• The Kalahari Desert (Southern Africa): A large, semi-arid sandy region.
• The Atacama Desert (South America): Found on the western coast of Chile, it’s one of the driest places on Earth.

Question 46.

Name the parts that the Sahara desert covers.

Ans:

The Sahara Desert is the world’s largest hot desert, covering a massive area of northern Africa. This huge expanse of land stretches across several countries, including Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, and Tunisia, along with the disputed territory of Western Sahara.

The desert’s borders are defined by natural features. The Atlantic Ocean lies to its west, while the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains form its northern boundary. The Red Sea marks its eastern edge. To the south, the Sahara transitions into the Sahel, which is a semi-arid savanna.

Question 47.
Where are the following deserts located ?

(a) Arabian desert
(b) Thar desert
(c) Kalahari desert
(d) Atacama desert

Ans:

The World’s Major Deserts

Arabian Desert

The Arabian Desert is a vast, dry expanse covering most of the Arabian Peninsula. Its core is located in Saudi Arabia, but it also reaches into nearby countries such as Iraq, Jordan, and the UAE. 

Thar Desert

Known as the Great Indian Desert, the Thar is a significant arid region in India and Pakistan. This desert creates a natural boundary between the two countries and is unique for being the most densely populated desert on Earth.

Kalahari Desert

Though it’s often called a desert, it’s actually semi-arid and receives more rainfall than a typical desert, so it’s not entirely barren. It mainly covers Botswana, with parts extending into Namibia and South Africa. The name “Kalahari” originates from a Tswana word meaning “the great thirst,” which describes its lack of permanent surface water.

Atacama Desert

In northern Chile, the Atacama Desert is a distinct plateau on the Pacific coast. Located between the Andes Mountains and the Chilean Coast Range, it holds the title of the driest nonpolar desert in the world. The extreme lack of rainfall is due to two main factors: the rain-shadow effect of the Andes and the chilling influence of the Humboldt Current, which prevents the formation of rain clouds.

Question 48.

Mention the two features of the climate of tropical desert.

Ans:

The defining characteristics of a tropical desert climate are its scorching heat and minimal precipitation.

Extreme Heat 

Tropical deserts are known for their incredibly high daytime temperatures. The absence of clouds means that solar radiation can heat the ground and the air to extreme levels. However, this lack of cloud cover also leads to a dramatic temperature drop at night, as heat quickly radiates back into space.

Scarce Rainfall 

Another key feature is the lack of rain. This is because they are often found beneath persistent high-pressure systems, where air is constantly sinking. This descending dry air prevents the formation of rain clouds, leading to prolonged drought conditions.

Question 49.

State the vegetation of deserts.

Ans:

Desert vegetation is sparse and highly specialized, with plants known as xerophytes uniquely adapted to survive intense heat and aridity.

Key Adaptations of Desert Plants

• Water Storage: Plants like cacti and aloes are succulents. They possess fleshy stems or leaves that store water, often protected by a waxy outer layer to prevent moisture loss through transpiration.
• Root Systems: Some desert plants, like the mesquite tree, have deep taproots that can penetrate far into the ground to find water. Other plants utilize a shallow, widespread root system to quickly absorb rainfall from the surface.
• Short Life Cycles: They stay as dormant seeds in the soil until it rains, then they rapidly germinate, grow, flower, and produce new seeds before the ground becomes dry again.

Question 50.

Why are the deserts sparsely populated ?

Ans:

Deserts are sparsely populated primarily due to their extreme climate and limited resources. The harsh conditions make it difficult for large human settlements to thrive.

Lack of Water

The most significant challenge in deserts is the scarcity of water. Deserts receive very little rainfall, and finding reliable water sources like rivers or accessible groundwater is extremely difficult. Without sufficient water, it’s impossible to sustain a large population, support agriculture, or maintain livestock.

Extreme Temperatures

Deserts are known for their extreme temperature fluctuations. While daytime temperatures can be scorching, nights are often very cold. These drastic changes make it hard for people to adapt and create a challenging environment for human survival.

Poor Soil and Lack of Food

This means it’s incredibly challenging to grow crops for food, and the sparse vegetation cannot support a large number of grazing animals. This lack of food and water resources makes it difficult to establish permanent communities.

Question 51.

Name the typical animal of the desert region.

Ans:

Animals in desert regions have developed remarkable adaptations to survive the extreme heat and lack of water. Some of the most typical desert animals are:

• Camels: They store fat in their humps, which provides a source of energy, and have wide feet to prevent them from sinking into the sand.
• Fennec Fox: This small nocturnal fox is famous for its massive ears, which help it dissipate body heat and locate prey burrowed under the sand.
• Scorpions: Many scorpion species are found in deserts worldwide. They are nocturnal and seek shelter during the day in burrows, under rocks, or in crevices to avoid the heat.
• Reptiles: Deserts are home to a variety of reptiles, including snakes and lizards. The sidewinder rattlesnake, for example, is known for its unique “sidewinding” movement, which allows it to move across loose sand while minimizing contact with the scorching ground. 
• Rodents: Smaller burrowing mammals like kangaroo rats and jerboas are common. They spend the hottest part of the day underground in burrows, where temperatures are more stable.

Question 52.

What is the location of the Mediterranean region ?

Ans:

A Mediterranean climate is a subtropical climate type marked by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters . This unique seasonal pattern typically occurs on the western coasts of continents, positioned between 30° and 45° latitude. 

Global Distribution

While the Mediterranean Sea region is the most well-known example, this climate type appears in several other areas around the globe:

• Europe and the Mediterranean Basin: Spans across Southern Europe, parts of North Africa, and the Middle East.
• North America: Found in Central and Southern California.
• Africa: Exists on the southwestern coast of South Africa’s Cape Province.
• Australia: Occurs in the southwestern part of Western Australia and along the southern coasts of South Australia and Victoria.

Question 53.
Mention the extent of Mediterranean type climate in the following :

(a) Asia
(b) Europe
(c) Africa
(d) America
(e) Australia

Ans:

(a) Asia

In Asia, the Mediterranean climate is confined to the western coastal regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea. This includes coastal parts of countries such as Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel.

(b) Europe

Europe contains the largest and most well-known area of the Mediterranean climate. It’s widespread throughout the coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea, encompassing most of Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece. The climate also extends to southern France and the coastal regions of Balkan nations like Croatia and Albania, as well as on major islands like Sicily and Malta.

(c) Africa

Africa’s Mediterranean climate is limited to two distinct areas: the northern coast, which includes countries like Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, and the southernmost tip of the continent, specifically the Western Cape region of South Africa near Cape Town.

(d) America

The Mediterranean climate is found in two separate locations in the Americas. In North America, it’s prevalent in a large portion of California and a small part of southwestern Oregon. In South America, the climate is restricted to a relatively small area in central Chile, where cities like Santiago are located.

(e) Australia

In Australia, the Mediterranean climate is found in the southern parts of the country. This includes the southwestern tip of Western Australia (near Perth) and parts of South Australia (around Adelaide).

Question 54.

What are the general characteristics of the climate of the Mediterranean region ?

Ans:

The Mediterranean climate is a unique climatic type defined by a specific set of characteristics. This climate is named after the Mediterranean Sea basin, where it is most prevalent, but it also exists in other parts of the world with similar geographical conditions.

Key Characteristics

• Hot, Dry Summers: The most defining feature is a long, hot, and dry summer season. During this time, the subtropical high-pressure system dominates, creating clear skies and very little to no rainfall. Temperatures are often high, with daily ranges being significant, especially inland.
• Mild, Wet Winters: Winters are mild and wet. As the subtropical high-pressure system shifts equatorward, it allows the mid-latitude westerlies and associated storm systems to bring rainfall. Frost and snow are rare, especially in coastal areas.
• Seasonal Rainfall Pattern: Precipitation is highly seasonal. The vast majority of the annual rainfall occurs during the winter and early spring, with summers experiencing a prolonged drought of several months. 
• Geographic Location: This climate is typically found on the western coasts of continents between 30° and 45° latitude north and south of the equator. The proximity to large bodies of water helps to moderate temperatures, preventing extremes.

Question 55.

Name the winds prevailing during summers and winter in the Mediterranean region.

Ans:

The Mediterranean region’s distinct climate is a result of the seasonal shifts in major pressure systems, which in turn dictate the prevailing wind patterns. 

Summer Wind Patterns

During the summer months, the region is dominated by the subtropical high-pressure system. This creates a period of atmospheric stability, leading to clear skies, hot temperatures, and very little rainfall. The prevailing winds during this season are typically dry, offshore trade winds that blow from the continents toward the sea. 

Winter Wind Patterns

This shift allows the westerly wind belt to extend its influence over the Mediterranean. The winds, now known as westerlies, travel over the Atlantic Ocean, gathering moisture. When these onshore winds reach the region, they bring the much-needed rainfall and cooler temperatures that characterize the Mediterranean’s mild, wet winter.

Question 56.

What are the characteristics of the Mediterranean climate which makes it suitable for orchard farming ? Which state of the USA is famous for orchard farming ?

Ans:

The Mediterranean climate’s unique characteristics make it particularly well-suited for orchard farming.

Characteristics of Mediterranean Climate for Orchard Farming

• Hot, Dry Summers: The long, hot, and dry summers are ideal for ripening fruits and concentrating their flavors and sugars. The lack of summer rain prevents many fungal diseases and pests that thrive in humid conditions, which can be a problem in other climates.
• Abundant Sunshine: The region experiences abundant sunshine, even during the winter, which is crucial for photosynthesis and the development of high-quality fruit.
• Adaptable Tree Varieties: The fruit trees and vines cultivated in these regions, such as citrus fruits, olives, and grapes, have evolved to adapt to the dry summer conditions. They often have deep root systems to access water stored in the soil from the winter rains, and leathery leaves that minimize water loss through transpiration.

This combination of a distinct seasonal rainfall pattern and ample sunshine creates a perfect environment for the cultivation of a wide variety of fruits, including citrus fruits (oranges, lemons), stone fruits (peaches, apricots), grapes, figs, and olives.

State Famous for Orchard Farming in the USA

The state of California is highly famous for its orchard farming, with a significant portion of the state enjoying a Mediterranean-type climate. It is a leading producer of a huge variety of fruits, vegetables, and nuts for the entire country and the world.

Question 57.

Which country is the world’s leading producer of grapes?

Ans:

China is the world’s leading producer of grapes.

The country has dramatically increased its grape production in recent decades, surpassing traditional grape-growing powerhouses like Italy, Spain, and the United States. While many countries are known for producing grapes for specific uses like wine, China’s vast production is used for a variety of purposes, including fresh consumption, raisins, and winemaking, catering to its large domestic market and growing export industry.

Question 58.

Why is the Mediterranean region popular for the fruit processing industry ?

Ans:

The Mediterranean region is renowned for its fruit processing industry because of its unique climate, which is perfectly suited for cultivating a wide range of fruits. This favorable climate provides a consistent and abundant supply of high-quality raw materials, forming the foundation for a thriving processing sector.

Ideal Climate for Fruit Growth 

The Mediterranean climate, with its hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, is optimal for growing fruits used in processing. The long, sun-drenched summers are crucial for ripening fruits and concentrating their natural sugars and flavors. Conversely, the mild winters provide sufficient moisture for tree growth without the risk of damaging frosts. This seasonal pattern supports the cultivation of high-value crops such as:

• Grapes: The hot, dry conditions are ideal for viticulture, leading to a concentrated sugar content perfect for the region’s famous wine-making industry.
• Olives: Olive trees are highly adapted to the dry, sunny climate, making the Mediterranean a global leader in olive oil production.
• Citrus Fruits: Oranges, lemons, and grapefruits thrive in the mild winters and abundant sunshine, fueling industries that produce juices and canned products.
• Stone Fruits: Peaches, apricots, and cherries also grow well, contributing to the production of jams and preserves.

Abundant Raw Materials 

The direct result of this excellent growing climate is a large and reliable harvest of fruits. This steady supply of fresh, high-quality produce is the primary reason the fruit processing industry has flourished in the region. Industries dedicated to wine production, olive oil extraction, and the creation of juices, jams, and canned fruits have developed over centuries to process and preserve these abundant crops, with a rich history and deep expertise in these specific fields.

Question 59.

Why does the Mediterranean region support large cattle populations ?

Ans:

The Mediterranean region is not ideal for supporting large cattle populations, especially compared to regions with temperate climates like Northern Europe or North America. The primary reason is the climate’s effect on pastureland.

Poor Grazing Conditions

This seasonal rainfall pattern is a significant disadvantage for cattle farming.

• Scarcity of Summer Forage: During the long, dry summers, grasses and pastures wilt and die. This makes it impossible to sustain large herds on grazing alone. Unlike wetter climates that have green pastures year-round, the Mediterranean landscape turns brown and arid, providing little to no natural food for cattle.
• Wiry and Bunchy Grasses: Even the grasses that grow during the wet winter and spring seasons are often tough, wiry, and not as nutritious as the lush, soft grasses found in temperate zones. This makes them less suitable for cattle, which require a high volume of quality forage to maintain health and produce milk or meat efficiently.

Alternative Livestock and Farming Practices 

Due to these climatic challenges, livestock farming in the Mediterranean region has traditionally focused on animals better adapted to the dry, rugged conditions. Sheep and goats are much more common because they can thrive on the available scrubland and sparse vegetation. They are also known for their hardiness and ability to produce milk, meat, and wool on a less-rich diet.

While some cattle farming exists, it’s often small-scale and located in specific areas like mountain pastures or where irrigation is available. This is in stark contrast to the large-scale, pasture-based cattle ranching found in other parts of the world.

Question 60.

During which season the Mediterranean region receives most of its rainfall.

Ans:

The Mediterranean region gets most of its rain in the winter due to a seasonal shift in global wind and pressure systems.

Reason for Winter Rainfall

The seasonal rainfall pattern is a key feature of the Mediterranean climate. 

• Summer (Dry Season): In the summer, the region is dominated by a subtropical high-pressure system. This stable atmospheric condition creates clear skies and blocks rain-bearing weather systems from moving in. 
• Winter (Wet Season): During the winter, this high-pressure system shifts southward, closer to the equator. This allows the westerly wind belt and its associated mid-latitude storm systems to bring moisture from the Atlantic Ocean into the region.

Question 61.

Give the important evergreen coniferous trees of the Mediterranean region.

Ans:

The Mediterranean region’s unique climate, defined by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, supports a variety of adapted evergreen coniferous trees that are integral to its landscape. These trees have developed specific features to survive prolonged periods of drought and high temperatures.

Key Evergreen Coniferous Trees of the Mediterranean

• Pines (Pinus spp.): Species like the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and the Stone pine (Pinus pinea), famous for its distinctive umbrella-shaped canopy, are well-suited to the dry conditions. They often form extensive, resilient forests across the region.
• Cypresses (Cupressus spp.): The Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) is known for its tall, slender, and columnar form. This tree is a classic element of the Mediterranean landscape, frequently planted in gardens, along avenues, and in cemeteries.
• Cedars (Cedrus spp.): Found primarily at higher altitudes in the mountainous areas, cedars are historically significant. Prominent examples include the Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica) from North Africa and the Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani), a national symbol of Lebanon. These long-lived trees are known for their valuable timber.
• Firs (Abies spp.): While less common than pines and cypresses, certain fir species thrive in the more humid, mountainous parts of the region. The Spanish fir (Abies pinsapo), for instance, is a notable species found in specific parts of Spain.

Question 62.

For what is California famous and why ?

Ans:

California is famous for a diverse range of industries and cultural contributions, all of which are rooted in its unique geography and history. From technological innovation to global entertainment, the state has become a major global economic and cultural powerhouse.

1. Technology and Innovation 

California is internationally known as the center of the technology industry, largely due to Silicon Valley. This region in the southern San Francisco Bay Area is home to the headquarters of tech giants like Apple, Google, and Meta. It became a hub for innovation because of a combination of factors:

• World-Class Universities: Institutions like Stanford University and UC Berkeley provide a constant influx of highly skilled graduates and cutting-edge research.
• Venture Capital: The area has a culture of risk-taking and a large concentration of venture capitalists willing to invest in startups and groundbreaking ideas.
• A Pioneering Spirit: The state’s history, dating back to the Gold Rush, has fostered a culture of entrepreneurship and a desire to create and innovate.

2. Entertainment Industry 

The state is synonymous with the global film and television industry, with Hollywood serving as its epicenter. Hollywood’s rise to fame can be traced back to the early 1900s when filmmakers began moving to the area to escape a film patent trust on the East Coast. They were also attracted by Southern California’s ideal climate, abundant sunshine, and diverse landscapes—from mountains and deserts to beaches—which provided a variety of settings for filming. Today, Hollywood is a massive industry that includes major studios and production companies, making it a powerful force in global entertainment and culture.

3. Natural Beauty and Tourism 

California is famous for its stunning and diverse landscapes, which drive a thriving tourism industry. The state’s geography includes:

• National Parks: It boasts the most national parks of any state, including iconic destinations like Yosemite National Park with its towering granite cliffs and waterfalls, and Death Valley, a vast desert with extreme temperatures.
• Coastline: The scenic Pacific coastline features beautiful beaches, rugged cliffs, and famous landmarks like the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco.
• Agricultural Heartlands: The state’s Central Valley is one of the world’s most productive agricultural regions, known as the “nation’s salad bowl,” and the Napa and Sonoma valleys are renowned globally for their wine.

Question 63.

Mention three special cultures of the Mediterranean region.

Ans:

The Mediterranean region has been a hub for the development of numerous civilizations, and three of the most influential—the Minoan, Roman, and Ottoman cultures—demonstrate its profound historical depth. Shaped by the unique geography and strategic location of the region, each of these societies left an indelible mark on world history.

1. Minoan Civilization (c. 2700–1450 BCE)

The Minoans, one of Europe’s earliest advanced cultures, flourished on the island of Crete. As a formidable maritime power, they established extensive trade networks across the Mediterranean, connecting with key centers in Egypt, Syria, and Cyprus. Minoan society is famous for its elaborate palace complexes, such as the one at Knossos, which showcased advanced engineering like plumbing and multi-story construction. Their art, characterized by vibrant frescoes and intricate pottery, often depicted natural motifs, marine life, and ritualistic events like bull-leaping. The Minoans’ precise cultural practices and their undeciphered Linear A script continue to be a primary focus for archaeologists.

2. Roman Empire (c. 753 BCE–476 CE)

Starting as a city-state in Italy, the Roman civilization expanded to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin, profoundly shaping Western civilization. The Roman legal system, with its emphasis on codified laws and principles of justice, provides the basis for many modern legal codes. Their engineering feats are legendary, including monumental structures like the Colosseum, an extensive network of aqueducts that supplied cities with fresh water, and thousands of miles of roads that facilitated trade and military movements. The Latin language is the ancestor of modern Romance languages, while their political system, including the concept of a republic, continues to influence governments worldwide.

3. Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–1922 CE)

Their artistic and architectural style, visible in iconic mosques, grand palaces, and bridges, remains a prominent feature in many parts of the region. The empire’s multi-ethnic and multi-religious structure fostered a rich cultural exchange, which contributed to unique culinary traditions that are now an integral part of the region’s food heritage.

Question 64.

What is Viticulture ? Why is it so popular in Europe ?

Ans:

It encompasses all aspects of grapevine cultivation, including managing pests, diseases, and the vine’s structure, as well as determining the ideal time for harvest. While viticulture can be for any grape use, viniculture specifically refers to growing grapes for making wine.

Why Viticulture is so Popular in Europe

Viticulture is deeply ingrained in European culture and economy for three main reasons: its long history, favorable climate, and significant economic impact.

Historical Significance

The origins of European viticulture trace back to the ancient Greeks and Romans, who introduced grape cultivation and winemaking throughout the continent. After the Roman Empire’s decline, monasteries played a crucial role in maintaining and refining winemaking traditions. This extensive history has made winemaking an essential part of many European regions’ cultural identity.

Ideal Climate and Terroir

Europe’s diverse geography and climate are perfectly suited for growing a wide variety of grapes. Many areas, particularly those with a Mediterranean climate, provide the perfect balance of hot, dry summers for grape ripening and mild, wet winters for vine dormancy. The concept of terroir, which describes the unique combination of soil, climate, and topography of a specific location, is a cornerstone of European viticulture. This diversity in terroir allows for the creation of a vast range of distinctive wines, each with its own character.

Economic Importance

The European wine industry is a major economic force, contributing substantially to the continent’s GDP and creating millions of jobs. Strict quality regulations and labeling systems, such as the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), have helped establish European wines’ global reputation for quality and authenticity. Wine tourism, in particular, is a rapidly expanding industry that boosts the economies of rural areas.

Question 65.
By what names are the grasslands known in following areas :

(a) In North America
(b) In South Africa
(c) In Hungary
(d) In Eurasia
(e) In Australia.

Ans:

Different names are used for grasslands around the world based on their location. Here are the names for grasslands in the specified regions:

Grasslands by Region

• North America: The grasslands are known as the Prairies. These are vast, fertile plains in the continent’s interior.
• South Africa: These grasslands are called the Veld. The veld is a high-altitude, open landscape of grassland and low scrub that supports various wildlife.
• Hungary: The grasslands are referred to as the Puszta. 
• Eurasia: The extensive grasslands spanning Eastern Europe to Central Asia are called the Steppes. Historically, this region was a key route for nomadic tribes and trade.
• Australia: The grasslands are known as the Downs. These are broad, rolling plains primarily used for grazing livestock like sheep and cattle.

Question 66.

Give the extent of steppes.

Ans:

The Eurasian Steppe is a massive grassland biome spanning about 8,000 kilometers (5,000 miles) across the Eurasian continent, making it one of the world’s largest continuous grasslands.

Geographical Extent

From there, they stretch eastward through southern Russia and Kazakhstan, forming a wide band across Central Asia. The grasslands continue into Siberia and Mongolia, concluding at the western border of Manchuria in northern China.

Although the Ural Mountains create a narrow point, they do not completely interrupt the steppes’ continuity. To the north, the steppes meet Russia’s boreal forests (taiga), while to the south, the landscape becomes progressively arid, transitioning into semi-deserts and deserts. This expansive, open environment has historically been a vital route for commerce, migration, and the movement of nomadic groups between Europe and Asia.

Question 67.

What kind of climate does Steppe have ?

Ans:

It’s characterized by significant temperature extremes and low, irregular rainfall.

Key Characteristics of Steppe Climate

• Temperature Extremes: Steppe climates experience a large temperature range both annually and daily. Summers are often very hot, while winters are very cold, sometimes with snow cover for several months.
• Low Precipitation: The steppes receive limited rainfall, usually between 25 and 50 cm (10-20 inches) per year. Most of this precipitation occurs in late spring and summer, and it is often unreliable and highly variable.
• Continental Location: Steppes are usually found in the interior of continents, far from the moderating influence of large bodies of water. This is the main reason for their extreme temperatures and low rainfall.
• Vegetation: The low rainfall and temperature fluctuations result in a landscape dominated by grasses and shrubs, with few trees except along rivers and streams.

Question 68.

What is the mean annual rainfall in the Steppe region ?

Ans:

The mean annual rainfall in the Steppe region generally ranges from 25 to 50 centimeters (10 to 20 inches). However, this amount can vary, with some sources citing a broader range of 25 to 75 cm depending on the specific location.

Key Characteristics of Steppe Rainfall

• Semi-Arid Climate: The Steppe region is characterized by a semi-arid climate, meaning it receives more rainfall than a desert but not enough to support forests.
• Seasonal Variation: Most of the precipitation occurs in late spring and early summer (June and July) as rain.
• Continentality: Due to their location in the interior of continents, far from moisture-bearing winds from the oceans, Steppe regions experience low and unreliable rainfall.
• Regional Differences: Rainfall can vary across the vast Eurasian Steppe. For example, some areas might be more humid, leading to taller grasses, while drier regions support only short, sparse grasses.

Question 69.

What is the extension of prairies ?

Ans:

Extension of the Prairies

The prairie ecosystem is part of the larger Interior Lowlands region of North America. It stretches from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Appalachian Mountains in the east, and from Canada in the north down into Mexico.

The extension can be broken down further by grassland type, which is determined by rainfall:

• Tallgrass prairie is found in the wetter, eastern regions of the prairie, including parts of Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Minnesota. This area has rich, fertile soil and receives the most rainfall.
• Mixed-grass prairie occupies the central part of the Great Plains, stretching through states like Nebraska, Kansas, and the Dakotas.
• Shortgrass prairie is located in the drier western areas closer to the Rocky Mountains, covering parts of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana.

Question 70.

What is the average temperature and rainfall in prairies?

Ans:

The North American Prairies are a type of temperate grassland, which means they experience a continental climate with distinct seasons and wide temperature variations.

Temperature 

The average temperature in the prairies can fluctuate dramatically between seasons. Summers are warm to hot, with average temperatures around 20°C (68°F). Winters are very cold, with temperatures often dropping to -20°C (-4°F) or even lower. The prairie’s central location on the continent, away from the moderating influence of oceans, leads to these extreme temperatures.

Rainfall 

The eastern parts, known as the tallgrass prairies, receive more rainfall, while the western shortgrass prairies are much drier. Most of the precipitation falls during the late spring and summer months, which is crucial for the growth of the dominant grassland vegetation.

Question 71.

Give the location of China type climate region.

Ans:

The China-type climate, also known as the Warm Temperate Eastern Margin climate, is found on the eastern sides of continents in the mid-latitudes, typically between 25° and 40° N and S.

This climate is characterized by a significant annual temperature range, with hot, humid summers and cooler, drier winters, influenced by a monsoonal wind pattern. Heavy rainfall occurs mainly during the summer.

Locations of China-Type Climate

• Asia: The primary location is in China, particularly the central and northern regions. This climate also extends to southern Japan and parts of South Korea.
• North America: A similar climate, often called the Gulf Type, is found in the southeastern United States, including states along the Gulf of Mexico like Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana.
• South America: This climate is present in southern Brazil, Uruguay, and northern Argentina.
• Africa: The Natal region of eastern South Africa also has a similar climate.

Question 72.

By which currents are the coastal parts of China affected by this type of climate ?

Ans:

The coastal regions of China experiencing the China-type climate are significantly shaped by the Kuroshio Current.

This current is crucial because it transports warm, moist air to the region. This warm, moisture-rich air contributes to the characteristic hot, humid summers and the heavy, monsoon-driven rainfall of the China-type climate. The Kuroshio is a powerful western boundary current in the North Pacific Ocean, playing a role similar to that of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic.

Question 73.

What are typhoons ?

Ans:

They are a type of tropical cyclone defined by intense winds, heavy rainfall, and a significant storm surge.

Formation and Characteristics

The formation of a typhoon is similar to that of hurricanes and cyclones, with the name simply depending on its geographical location. A tropical cyclone is called a typhoon when it develops in the northwestern Pacific.

As air from surrounding higher-pressure areas rushes in, it begins to rotate due to the Coriolis effect, which is caused by the Earth’s rotation. This rotating system of clouds and air gains energy from the warm ocean, causing it to intensify and grow.

Key Features of a Typhoon

• Winds: The most dangerous feature is the high-speed winds, which can exceed 150 mph and cause extensive damage.
• Rainfall: Typhoons bring torrential rain, leading to widespread flooding and mudslides.
• Storm Surge: A significant rise in sea level caused by the storm’s winds pushing water toward the shore. 
• Structure: A mature typhoon has a distinct structure: a calm center called the eye, which is surrounded by the eyewall—the region with the strongest winds and heaviest rain.

Question 74.

Give two characteristics of vegetation of China type climate.

Ans:

The vegetation in China-type climate regions is typically lush and varied, primarily due to the combination of ample summer rainfall and high temperatures.

Key Characteristics of the Vegetation

• Mixed Forests: The native plant life consists of mixed forests that include both evergreen broad-leaved trees and deciduous trees. Evergreen species like oaks and laurels flourish during the warm, wet summers, while deciduous trees such as maples and chestnuts shed their leaves in the cooler, drier winters.
• Dense Growth: The combination of warm temperatures and significant summer rainfall creates a dense, tall forest canopy. This environment supports a wide array of plant life, including creepers, climbers, and epiphytes—plants that grow on other plants without being parasitic. 

Question 75.

In which parts of Africa do tropical grasslands occur ?

Ans:

They serve as a transition zone between the dense equatorial rainforests and the deserts located to the north and south.

Key African Savanna Regions

East Africa: This region is home to some of the world’s most famous savannas, including the Serengeti in Tanzania and the Masai Mara in Kenya. These ecosystems are celebrated for their incredible biodiversity and the dramatic yearly migration of wildebeest and zebra.

Central and West Africa: The Sahel region is a prominent savanna zone located just south of the Sahara Desert, spanning countries like Mali and Niger. Another notable type of savanna in Central Africa is the Miombo woodlands, which are distinguished by the prevalence of Brachystegia trees.

Question 76.

What is known as ‘Parkland’ ?

Ans:

The term parkland refers to an area characterized by open grasslands dotted with scattered trees, creating a park-like appearance. This can describe both naturally occurring ecosystems and intentionally designed landscapes for human enjoyment.

1. Natural Parkland Ecosystems

Natural parklands act as transitional zones between dense forests and open grasslands. These regions support diverse flora and fauna, blending grassy clearings with clusters of trees. A well-known example is the aspen parkland in North America, found between the boreal forests and the prairies. This biome features expansive meadows mixed with groves of aspen trees, providing a rich habitat for wildlife.

2. Designed Parkland Landscapes

Parkland can also refer to carefully curated landscapes, often seen in large estates, public parks, or golf courses. These areas are meticulously maintained, with well-trimmed lawns and strategically placed trees to enhance aesthetics and functionality. This style of parkland originated in Europe, where it was initially part of aristocratic estates but has since become a common feature in urban and rural public spaces, offering scenic environments for leisure and recreation.

Question 77.

Why is the Taiga known as the Cold Pole of the Earth’?

Ans:

The term “Cold Pole of the Earth” refers to locations in the Taiga biome that have recorded some of the planet’s lowest temperatures. This title is primarily shared by two towns in eastern Siberia: Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon.

These areas experience extreme cold due to a combination of several factors:

• High Latitude: The Taiga biome’s location in the northern high latitudes means it receives minimal direct sunlight.
• Continental Location: Their distance from the sea means there’s no moderating influence from ocean currents, resulting in significant temperature variations.
• Topography: Both Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon are located in valleys. Cold, dense air sinks and becomes trapped in these basins, creating a phenomenon called a temperature inversion that intensifies the cold.

Question 78.

Why is the Polar Tundra region called the cold desert ?

Ans:

The Polar Tundra is often referred to as a “cold desert” because it shares a key characteristic with hot deserts: a severe lack of precipitation. However, the defining feature of the tundra is its consistently freezing temperatures.

The analogy is fitting for several reasons:

• Scant Rainfall: The tundra receives less than 25 cm (10 inches) of precipitation annually, a defining trait of a desert. Although much of this falls as snow, the total amount is very low. 
• Unavailable Water: While covered in ice and snow, most of the water in the tundra is frozen and inaccessible to plants and animals. The ground below the surface is a permanently frozen layer called permafrost, which stops water from soaking in and prevents deep root systems from forming.

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• Limited Plant Life: The harsh cold, minimal precipitation, and permafrost restrict vegetation to low-lying plants like mosses, lichens, and grasses, which have adapted to the short growing season. There are very few trees.
• Extreme Cold: The short summer is the only time the uppermost layer of soil thaws, allowing for a burst of plant growth.

Give reasons for the following

Question 79.
There is little seasonal variation in the climatic condition of equatorial region.
Ans:

The main reason there’s little seasonal variation in the equatorial region is that the sun’s rays hit this area at a consistently direct angle throughout the year. Because of the Earth’s tilt, other parts of the world experience significant changes in the angle of sunlight, leading to distinct seasons. However, the equator receives a relatively stable amount of solar radiation, resulting in consistently high temperatures and a lack of traditional seasons like summer and winter.

In addition to this, the high temperatures cause a high rate of evaporation. This leads to convectional rainfall almost daily, which further moderates temperatures and keeps the climate consistently hot and humid.

The equatorial region’s climate is also affected by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a low-pressure belt where trade winds from the Northern and Southern Hemispheres meet. The ITCZ is a major cause of the heavy rainfall and thunderstorms characteristic of this climate. While the ITCZ does shift slightly north and south of the equator during the year, its influence is constant enough to ensure a lack of a true dry season.

The high humidity and dense cloud cover also play a role in reducing temperature variation. Clouds reflect solar radiation during the day, preventing temperatures from getting too high, and they trap heat at night, stopping temperatures from dropping significantly. This results in a very small diurnal temperature range (the difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures).

Question 80.

Equatorial regions support luxuriant vegetation.

Ans:

The luxuriant vegetation in equatorial regions is primarily due to a combination of consistently high temperatures and abundant rainfall throughout the year. This creates an ideal environment for plant growth.

Key Factors for Luxuriant Vegetation

• Consistent Heat and Sunlight: The equatorial region receives direct and intense sunlight year-round, which leads to consistently high temperatures. This provides a constant source of energy for photosynthesis, allowing plants to grow continuously without a cold season. 
• Abundant Rainfall: The high temperatures cause rapid evaporation, leading to daily convectional rainfall. This provides a continuous supply of water, a critical ingredient for plant life. Annual rainfall can often exceed 2500 mm (100 inches), supporting dense and lush forests. 
• Nutrient Cycling: Although the soil in these regions can be surprisingly nutrient-poor due to heavy leaching from constant rain, the warm, wet conditions cause dead plant matter to decompose very quickly. This creates a highly efficient nutrient cycle where decaying organic material is rapidly absorbed by the dense network of plant roots, fueling the luxuriant growth.
• High Humidity: The high temperatures and heavy rainfall result in a very humid environment. This reduces water loss from plants through transpiration, allowing them to thrive and maintain their high metabolic rates.

Question 81.

Nights in the deserts are very cold.

Ans:

Nights in deserts are very cold due to a combination of factors, including a lack of humidity, clear skies, and the low heat-retaining capacity of sand.

Key Reasons for Cold Desert Nights

• Low Humidity: The most significant factor is the lack of water vapor in the air. Water vapor acts like a natural blanket, absorbing and trapping heat radiated from the ground. Since desert air is extremely dry, there’s nothing to hold this heat in, so it escapes rapidly into space once the sun sets.
• Clear Skies: Deserts typically have little to no cloud cover. Without clouds, the heat is free to escape unimpeded, causing a dramatic drop in temperature.
• Rapid Heat Loss from Sand: Sand has a low specific heat capacity, meaning it heats up and cools down very quickly. During the day, it absorbs a lot of heat, but as soon as the sun disappears, it loses that heat just as fast through radiation. This rapid cooling of the ground contributes to the sharp temperature drop.

Question 82.

The camel is called the ship of the desert.

Ans:

The camel is known as the “ship of the desert” because of its remarkable ability to navigate and survive in the harsh desert environment, much like a ship is essential for traveling across the sea. This nickname highlights the camel’s role as a primary mode of transportation and a lifeline for people in arid regions.

Here’s a breakdown of the adaptations that make the camel the “ship of the desert”:

1. Transportation and Endurance

Camels are exceptionally well-suited for long-distance travel across sandy terrain. They can carry heavy loads for many miles each day, making them indispensable for carrying goods, supplies, and people across the vast, featureless deserts where other forms of transport are impractical.

2. Physical Adaptations

The camel’s body is uniquely designed for desert life:

• Padded Feet: Their wide, flat, and padded feet act like snowshoes, spreading their weight and preventing them from sinking into the soft sand.
• Long Legs: Long legs keep their bodies high above the scorching sand, protecting them from the heat.
• Humps: Instead, they are made of fat, which serves as a vital energy reserve. This fat can be metabolized when food is scarce, providing energy and also producing metabolic water as a byproduct.
• Water Conservation: Camels have an incredible ability to conserve water. They can go for long periods without drinking and can tolerate a significant loss of body water.
• Protection from Sand: They have special features like long, thick eyelashes and nostrils that can be closed to protect against blowing sand and dust.

Question 83.

Mediterranean regions receive most of their precipitation in the winter season.

Ans:

Mediterranean regions receive most of their precipitation in the winter season due to the seasonal shift of global pressure and wind belts. 

The Mechanism of Winter Precipitation

During the winter, the polar jet stream and its associated mid-latitude cyclones (low-pressure systems) shift southwards. This brings these rain-producing weather systems over the Mediterranean regions. As these systems move through, they bring with them cold and warm fronts, which cause moist air to rise, cool, and condense, forming clouds and precipitation.

The Cause of Dry Summers

In the summer, the wind and pressure belts shift poleward. The Mediterranean regions fall under the influence of stable, high-pressure systems known as subtropical ridges. These high-pressure systems are associated with clear skies, minimal cloud cover, and subsiding (sinking) air, which prevents the formation of precipitation. This leads to the characteristic hot, dry summers.

Question 84.

Climate conditions in the Mediterranean region do not favour grasses.

Ans:

That’s correct. The climate conditions in the Mediterranean region don’t favor the extensive grasslands found in other parts of the world, like the prairies or savannas. The dominant natural vegetation is typically made up of shrubs, small trees, and woody plants.

Why Grasses Are Not Favored

The main reason for this is the Mediterranean climate’s long, hot, and dry summers, which are unfavorable for most grasses. Plants in this region have evolved specific adaptations to survive the seasonal drought, and these adaptations are not characteristic of grasses.

• Drought-Tolerant Plants: Mediterranean vegetation, such as olive trees, cork oaks, and various shrubs (like rosemary and lavender), are known for their sclerophyllous leaves. These leaves are small, tough, and leathery, often with a waxy coating or fine hairs, which helps reduce water loss through transpiration during the dry summer months.
• Adaptations to Fire: This region is also prone to wildfires, and many native plants are pyrophytes, meaning they have adapted to or even depend on fire for reproduction. Some plants have thick bark to protect them from fire, while others have seeds that only germinate after a fire.
• Winter Growing Season: Unlike grasses in temperate regions that grow during the summer, many Mediterranean plants do most of their growing and flowering during the mild, rainy winter and spring. They then enter a period of dormancy during the hot, dry summer to conserve water.