Preventive Measures

The chapter’s main topics and key takeaways include:

• Individual and Household Measures: It highlights simple, daily habits that individuals can adopt to reduce their environmental impact. This includes practices like using energy-efficient appliances (e.g., LED bulbs), saving water and electricity, carpooling, and using public transportation to reduce vehicular emissions.
• Preventing Vehicular Pollution: The significance of public transport and carpooling is emphasized as a way to reduce the number of private vehicles on the road, thereby cutting down on harmful emissions and traffic congestion.
• Industrial Pollution Control: The chapter covers technological solutions used by industries to control pollution. This includes devices like electrostatic precipitators for capturing particulate matter and scrubbers for removing harmful gases from factory exhaust. It also discusses the importance of modifying existing equipment and changing manufacturing processes to reduce pollution at its source.
• Waste Management: It explains the importance of proper solid waste management, contrasting the harmful effects of open dumping with more scientific methods like sanitary landfills, incineration, and, most importantly, waste segregation and recycling.
• Wastewater Treatment: The chapter outlines the multi-stage process of treating wastewater. It briefly explains the purpose of primary (physical removal of solids), secondary (biological breakdown of organic matter), and tertiary (advanced filtration and disinfection) treatments.
• Organic Farming: The chapter promotes organic farming as a sustainable agricultural practice that helps prevent soil and water pollution by avoiding synthetic pesticides and fertilizers and focusing on natural methods to maintain soil health.
• Legal Provisions and Public Health: It touches upon legal measures implemented to deter pollution, such as “No Smoking Zones” and laws against smoking in public places, and discusses the health benefits of these measures for both smokers and passive smokers.

Exercises

I. Short Answer Questions.

Question 1.
State two negative effects of vehicular emissions.
Ans:

Two significant negative effects of vehicular emissions are:

• Adverse Health Outcomes: The exhaust from vehicles contains a cocktail of harmful substances, including fine particulate matter and toxic gases like nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. Inhaling these pollutants can trigger a range of serious health problems, particularly affecting the respiratory and circulatory systems. This can manifest as aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis, and a heightened risk of cardiovascular events.
• Ecological Degradation: Vehicle exhaust is a primary source of atmospheric pollutants that degrade the environment. These emissions can contribute to the formation of harmful ground-level ozone (a key component of smog) and acid rain, which damages ecosystems and infrastructure. Furthermore, the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from vehicles is a significant driver of climate change, leading to global temperature increases and their associated impacts.

Question 2.

Name any two gases emitted by vehicular emissions.

Ans:

carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2​).

Question 3.

What is meant by carpooling ?

Ans:

Negative Effects of Vehicular Emissions

Vehicular emissions release a range of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere, causing significant negative effects on both human health and the environment.

Human Health Impacts

The fumes from vehicles contain toxins like nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter. When people breathe in these pollutants, it can lead to or worsen respiratory conditions such as asthma and bronchitis. Long-term exposure has also been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular problems, including heart attacks and strokes.

Environmental Damage

Vehicular emissions are a primary cause of air pollution. The pollutants contribute to the formation of smog, which can be harmful to both plants and animals. Additionally, these emissions release greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, which are a major factor in climate change and global warming. This contributes to rising global temperatures and other environmental shifts.

Question 4.

Name any three modes of public transport used in India.

Ans:

Here are two additional modes of public transport found in India, keeping the prompt’s request for unique content in mind:

• Ferries and Water Transport: In coastal regions like Kerala and Goa, and in cities with major rivers or backwaters, such as Kolkata, ferries and boats are an integral part of the public transport system. They serve as a vital link for daily commuters and tourists, navigating waterways and connecting islands or areas separated by water. These services often provide a more scenic and less congested alternative to road travel.
• Metro Systems: A relatively modern addition to India’s public transport landscape, metro rail systems have been established in several major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, and Chennai. These high-speed, elevated or underground railway networks are designed to tackle the severe traffic congestion of urban centers. They provide a rapid, reliable, and air-conditioned travel experience for a large volume of daily commuters, helping to reduce travel times significantly within the city.

Question 5.

What is a ‘No Smoking Zone’ ?

Ans:

Designated smoke-free areas are places where smoking is banned in order to shield people from the harmful consequences of secondhand smoke. These zones are frequently established in public and semi-public spaces that draw a lot of non-smokers. Workplaces, dining establishments, airports, and medical facilities are a few examples. The main goal of creating these zones is to improve public health by offering a smoke-free environment.

Question 6.

What are Fossil Fuels ?

Ans:

Fossil fuels are a category of non-renewable energy sources that are formed from the fossilized remains of ancient life. This includes plants, animals, and microorganisms that existed millions of years ago. The formation process involved the burial of these organic materials under layers of sediment, where they were exposed to immense heat and pressure over geological timescales. This transformation converted the organic matter into energy-rich compounds.

The primary types of fossil fuels are:

• Coal: Formed primarily from the remnants of prehistoric plant life in swampy areas.
• Petroleum (Oil): Derived from the decomposition of marine organisms, such as algae and plankton.
• Natural Gas: Often found alongside petroleum, this fuel is created under similar but more extreme conditions of heat and pressure.

The energy stored in fossil fuels is released through combustion, a process that has powered industrial societies for centuries. It’s used for generating electricity, powering vehicles, and various other applications. However, burning fossil fuels also releases greenhouse gases and other pollutants, which have significant negative impacts on the environment and human health.

Question 7.

State why we should use fossil fuels judiciously.

Ans:

Exercising caution in our use of fossil fuels is essential for several reasons, primarily stemming from their finite nature and the significant negative impacts of their use.

First and foremost, these resources—including coal, oil, and natural gas—are non-renewable. They are formed over millions of years, and the rate at which humanity is currently consuming them is far greater than the rate at which they are naturally created. Continuing our current pace of consumption will lead to a scarcity of these vital energy sources for future generations.

Furthermore, the environmental consequences of burning fossil fuels are severe. The process releases greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, which are the main contributors to global warming and climate change. This leads to more extreme weather, rising sea levels, and droughts. The combustion of fossil fuels also generates pollutants that cause smog and acid rain, harming ecosystems and negatively impacting air and water quality.

Finally, relying so heavily on fossil fuels creates geopolitical and economic risks. The uneven distribution of these resources around the globe can lead to supply chain disruptions and price volatility, which can in turn cause economic instability. By reducing our dependence on fossil fuels and transitioning to a more diverse and sustainable energy mix, we can mitigate these risks and create a more stable future.

Question 8.

State any three measures to save energy.

Ans:

Conserving energy is a crucial practice for both environmental sustainability and personal financial savings. Here are three effective strategies to reduce energy consumption:

1. Eliminate standby power waste. A significant amount of electricity is consumed by electronics that are plugged in but not actively in use. This phenomenon, often called “phantom load” or “vampire power,” can be easily addressed by unplugging devices like televisions, gaming consoles, and phone chargers when you’re not using them. Alternatively, using a power strip with a master switch allows you to cut power to multiple devices at once.
2. Transition to energy-efficient lighting. Traditional incandescent bulbs are highly inefficient, converting most of their energy into heat rather than light. A simple and impactful change is to replace them with LED (light-emitting diode) bulbs. LEDs are far more efficient, consuming a fraction of the electricity and lasting much longer, which results in both immediate energy savings and reduced maintenance costs over time.
3. Manage heating and cooling systems smartly. A large portion of a home’s energy use is dedicated to maintaining a comfortable temperature. To minimize this, adjust your thermostat to a reasonable setting and use it wisely. During warmer periods, fans can provide a cooling effect with much less energy than an air conditioner. In colder months, sealing gaps and drafts around windows and doors prevents warm air from escaping, allowing your heating system to work less and save energy.

Question 9.

What is Organic Farming ?

Ans:

It avoids synthetic chemicals and instead relies on a range of natural practices to foster healthy soil, vibrant ecosystems, and high-quality crops and livestock.

The fundamental tenets of this farming method include:

• Exclusion of Synthetic Materials: Organic agriculture strictly prohibits the use of artificial pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). 
• Prioritizing Soil Fertility: Organic farmers build and maintain soil health using natural methods. Techniques such as crop rotation, composting, and the application of organic matter like animal manure are employed to enrich the soil with nutrients and improve its structure, which in turn supports robust plant growth.
• Fostering a Diverse Ecosystem: Organic farms are designed to be biodiverse. By cultivating a mix of crops and creating natural habitats, they encourage a balanced ecosystem where beneficial insects and organisms can thrive, providing a natural defense against pests and diseases.
• Commitment to Sustainability: A core principle of organic farming is long-term environmental stewardship. Practices are focused on conserving water, minimizing pollution, and protecting natural resources, ensuring the viability of the land for future generations.
• Emphasis on Animal Welfare: In organic livestock production, the ethical treatment of animals is paramount. This involves providing animals with comfortable living conditions, sufficient space to roam, access to the outdoors, and a diet of organic feed. 

II. Long Answer Questions :

Question 1.
With reference to vehicular pollution in cities, state the significance of the following as a preventive measure.

1. Carpool
2. Public Transportation

Ans:

When it comes to tackling urban vehicular pollution, both carpooling and public transportation are vital strategies that work by reducing the number of individual vehicles on the road.

Carpooling

Sharing rides in a single vehicle is an effective way to lower the number of cars on the road. The main benefits are:

• Less Pollution per Individual: By consolidating multiple commuters into one car, the pollution generated per person is greatly reduced. For example, a single car with three passengers prevents two other vehicles from contributing to emissions, thereby lowering the total amount of pollutants released into the air.
• Reduced Traffic and Idling: Fewer cars on city streets lead to smoother traffic flow and less congestion. This is crucial because vehicles stuck in traffic consume more fuel and release a higher concentration of pollutants.
• Conservation of Fuel: With fewer cars on the road for the same number of trips, the overall consumption of gasoline and diesel decreases. This not only saves money but also helps to conserve non-renewable fossil fuels.

Public Transportation

Public transit systems, like buses, trains, and subways, are a highly efficient way to move large numbers of people and are therefore a powerful tool against pollution. Their significance lies in:

• Drastic Reduction in Per-Passenger Emissions: A single bus or train can replace dozens of cars. This means the carbon footprint per passenger is a tiny fraction of what it would be if everyone drove separately, making public transit an extremely eco-friendly option.
• Alleviating Urban Congestion: A well-developed public transportation network entices people to leave their cars at home, especially during rush hour. This dramatically reduces traffic, which in turn cuts down on the fuel waste and pollution associated with idling and stop-and-go driving.
• Encouraging Sustainable Urban Planning: Cities with strong public transit systems often foster more walkable and bike-friendly environments. This shift away from car dependency creates a more sustainable urban landscape, leading to long-term improvements in air quality and overall livability.

Question 2.
With reference to smoking, answer the following :

1. How does smoking harm passive smokers ?
2. Name any two legal provisions meant to deter smoking.
3. State any three advantages of having a ‘No Smoking Zone’.

Ans:

How does smoking harm passive smokers?

Non-smokers who are exposed to secondhand smoke, also known as passive smoking, absorb many of the same dangerous toxins as active smokers, leading to serious health issues.

• Impact on the Cardiovascular System: It can damage the inner walls of arteries and make the blood thicker and more prone to clotting, significantly increasing a person’s risk for heart attacks and strokes.
• Respiratory Illnesses: For children, whose respiratory systems are still developing, exposure is particularly dangerous, as it can trigger or worsen conditions like asthma, bronchitis, and pneumonia. Among adults, secondhand smoke is a major environmental cause of lung cancer.
• Risks to Vulnerable Individuals: Exposure to passive smoke during pregnancy has been linked to adverse outcomes such as low birth weight and premature delivery. Furthermore, secondhand smoke is a recognized risk factor for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) in babies.

Name any two legal provisions meant to deter smoking.

Governments worldwide have established various laws to curb smoking and protect public health. Two key legal measures are:

1. Restrictions in Public Environments: Regulations that forbid smoking in enclosed public places like restaurants, offices, schools, and on public transit. These laws are a fundamental strategy for shielding non-smokers from the health dangers of secondhand smoke.
2. Controls on Sales and Advertising: Legal provisions that prohibit the sale of tobacco products to minors and impose strict limits on how tobacco companies can advertise and promote their products. These measures are designed to reduce the appeal of smoking, especially to younger populations.

State any three advantages of having a ‘No Smoking Zone’.

Establishing designated “No Smoking Zones” offers significant benefits for public health and safety.

1. Safeguards Non-Smokers: The primary benefit is the protection of non-smokers from the health risks associated with passive smoking. These zones ensure that individuals can enjoy public spaces without being exposed to harmful airborne toxins.
2. Encourages Healthier Behaviors: Such areas can serve as a deterrent for smokers, prompting them to either reduce their cigarette consumption or quit entirely, as their opportunities to smoke are restricted. This supports broader public health goals by lowering the overall rate of smoking.
3. Contributes to Cleaner and Safer Spaces: Banning smoking in these areas reduces the amount of litter from cigarette butts, which are a common environmental pollutant. It also lowers the risk of accidental fires that can be caused by carelessly discarded cigarettes.

Question 3.
With reference to Organic Farming state the following :

1. Four principles of Organic Farming.
2. Main characteristics of Organic Farming.
3. Importance of Organic Farming.

Ans:

An agricultural system known as organic farming operates on a core set of values that prioritize ecological harmony, sustainability, and the welfare of all living things. Instead of relying on artificial chemicals, this approach cultivates food in a way that collaborates with natural cycles and processes.

The Four Core Principles of Organic Farming

Organic agriculture is founded on four ethical principles:

• The Health Principle: This principle establishes that the health of the soil, plants, animals, and people are all intertwined. Its goal is to produce nutrient-dense food that supports the well-being of all organisms, while avoiding practices that could have negative health consequences.
• The Ecology Principle: This type of farming is deeply integrated with natural ecological systems. It aims to mimic and sustain nature’s own cycles and processes. This includes methods like rotating crops and encouraging biological diversity to create a farm ecosystem that is both self-sustaining and durable.
• The Fairness Principle: This principle focuses on ensuring fair and just relationships among all parties in the food chain, from the growers to the final consumers. It advocates for fair wages, transparent business practices, and the responsible management of natural resources for the benefit of future generations.
• The Care Principle: This involves a proactive management style, using preventive measures and thoughtful decision-making to minimize potential harm.

Defining Characteristics of Organic Farming

Several key features distinguish organic farming from conventional agriculture:

• Avoidance of Artificial Inputs: Organic farming strictly prohibits the use of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
• Emphasis on Soil Vitality: Rather than applying chemicals directly to plants, organic agriculture focuses on building and maintaining rich, fertile soil. This is achieved through practices such as composting, using green manure, and crop rotation, which enhance soil structure and nurture beneficial microorganisms.
• Fostering Biodiversity: Organic farms are designed to support a wide variety of crops, insects, and other creatures. This high level of biodiversity helps create a balanced ecosystem that naturally manages pests and improves pollination.
• Biological Pest Control: Pests are controlled using natural methods, such as encouraging helpful insects and using crop rotation to disrupt pest life cycles, rather than relying on chemical applications.
• High Animal Welfare Standards: In organic livestock operations, animals are raised in humane conditions with access to the outdoors and a natural diet, and they are not routinely given antibiotics or growth hormones.

Why Organic Farming is Important

Organic farming provides significant advantages for the environment, human health, and economic sustainability:

• Environmental Preservation: By not using synthetic chemicals, organic farming prevents chemical runoff from contaminating water sources and helps maintain soil health. These methods also promote biodiversity and can help in reducing climate change by increasing the soil’s capacity to store carbon.
• Improved Human Health: Organic produce is grown without the use of synthetic pesticides and herbicides, which many people believe offers a safer food choice and reduces exposure to harmful chemicals.
• Long-Term Viability: The practices of organic farming are designed to be sustainable in the long term. By working with nature and preserving natural resources, they ensure that agricultural land can remain productive for many generations to come.
• Economic Benefits for Farmers: Organic farmers can often charge higher prices for their products. By also decreasing their reliance on expensive artificial inputs, they can boost their profitability and become more resilient to market fluctuations.

Practice Questions

Question 1.
What purpose does an electrostatic precipitator serve?
Ans:

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a piece of equipment designed to combat pollution by scrubbing fine particulate matter, like dust, smoke, and soot, out of a moving stream of gas. Its main function is to cleanse the exhaust fumes from industrial operations before they are discharged into the atmosphere, thereby mitigating air contamination.

The mechanism relies on electrical power to operate. As the gas flows through the device, an electric charge is imparted to the suspended particles. These newly charged particles are then pulled toward and captured on collecting plates that carry an opposite charge. Once a substantial layer of particles accumulates on these plates, they are shaken loose and directed into a collection bin for proper disposal.

• Steel manufacturing facilities, where they are used to gather dust generated by furnaces.
• Cement factories, which employ them to manage and control dust emissions.

By being capable of trapping as much as 99% of airborne particulate matter, an electrostatic precipitator plays a vital role in protecting both the environment and human health from the damaging effects of air pollution.

Question 2.

In the context of reducing air pollution, give the advantages of changing the process ; maintaining and modifying existing equipment.

Ans:

To effectively reduce air pollution, industries can take two primary approaches: changing the core manufacturing process and/or maintaining and modifying existing equipment. Each approach has distinct advantages.

Advantages of Changing the Process

Changing an industrial process to be cleaner from the outset is often the most effective and sustainable long-term solution. This “pollution prevention” approach offers several benefits:

• Source Reduction: By altering the process itself, a business can reduce or eliminate the generation of pollutants at their source. This is more efficient than trying to capture and treat pollutants after they have been created. For example, a company might switch to using a less toxic raw material or a cleaner-burning fuel, which directly prevents harmful emissions.
• Cost Savings: While there may be an initial investment, process changes can lead to significant long-term cost savings. These can come from reduced waste disposal fees, lower energy consumption, and less need for expensive “end-of-pipe” pollution control equipment and its associated maintenance.
• Improved Product Quality and Efficiency: In many cases, a more efficient process that generates less waste also produces a higher-quality product. By optimizing how resources are used, a company can improve overall operational efficiency.
• Enhanced Regulatory Compliance: By proactively changing processes to be cleaner, a company can more easily meet or exceed current environmental regulations. This can reduce the risk of fines and legal action, and may even help them avoid future, more stringent regulations.

Advantages of Maintaining and Modifying Existing Equipment

While changing the entire process might not always be feasible, a more practical approach is to focus on existing equipment. This strategy can yield immediate and substantial benefits:

• Cost-Effectiveness: Modifying or maintaining existing equipment is often a less capital-intensive solution than overhauling an entire industrial process. This makes it a more accessible option, especially for smaller businesses.
• Increased Efficiency and Lifespan: Regular maintenance, such as cleaning filters or replacing worn-out components in a pollution control device, ensures that the equipment operates at peak efficiency. This not only maximizes its pollution-reducing capacity but also extends its operational lifespan, delaying the need for a costly replacement.
• Targeted Improvements: Modifications can be tailored to address specific pollution problems. For instance, an industry might install a more advanced filter system or upgrade a scrubber to handle a particular pollutant more effectively.
• Ease of Implementation: Modifying a single piece of equipment is often easier and quicker to implement than a complete process change, which can require extensive planning, employee training, and downtime. This allows for faster progress in air pollution reduction.

Question 3.
What is a scrubber ? With the help of a diagram show its working?
Ans:
It is a device that employs spray of water to catch pollutants

during emissions. In this process, water is introduced into a spray tower by means of a spray nozzle which allows downward flow of water. As the polluted gas flows upwards, the particulates present in the gas collide with the water droplets being sprayed from the spray nozzles. Under the influence of gravitational force, the liquid droplets containing the particulates settle at the bottom.

Question 4.
Describe with the help of a diagram, working of the settling chamber.
Ans:

This device consists of a huge rectangular chamber with several . horizontal trays. The gas stream polluted with particulates is allowed to enter from one end. The horizontal velocity of the gas stream is kept low in order to give sufficient time for the particles to settle by gravity. The particulates having high density settle at the bottom of the chamber from where they are removed.

Question 5.

What care should be taken in order to reduce water pollution from non-point sources ?

Ans:

Controlling water pollution from non-point sources is challenging because it originates from widespread, diffuse areas rather than a single point. This type of pollution includes runoff from farms, cities, and construction sites, carrying contaminants such as chemicals, oil, and sediment.

To effectively address this issue, a combination of individual and community-wide strategies is necessary:

Urban and Suburban Areas:

• Handle runoff: Utilize green infrastructure like rain gardens and porous surfaces to absorb and filter rainwater.
• Dispose of waste properly: Never pour hazardous household chemicals, such as oil or paint, into storm drains.
• Manage lawns: Apply fertilizers and pesticides sparingly, and consider organic options to minimize chemical runoff.

Farming and Rural Areas:

• Adopt best practices: Farmers should use techniques like conservation tillage to prevent soil erosion and manage nutrient application carefully to reduce runoff.

Construction and Forestry:

• Control erosion: Construction sites must use measures like silt fences to contain sediment.
• Practice responsible land use: In forestry, minimize soil disruption and replant trees to prevent erosion.

Question 6.

Briefly state the procedure of treating waste water by primary and secondary treatment. What happens in the tertiary treatment of waste water ?

Ans:

This procedure typically includes primary, secondary, and sometimes an advanced tertiary stage.

Primary and Secondary Purification

• Primary Treatment: This initial stage is primarily a physical separation process. Raw wastewater is first directed through a series of screens to filter out large, bulky debris such as plastics and rags. The water then enters large basins where its flow is reduced, allowing heavier particles to settle at the bottom, forming a sediment layer known as primary sludge.This step is effective at removing a significant portion of the solid waste.
• Secondary Treatment: Following the initial solid removal, the water still contains dissolved and suspended organic pollutants. This stage employs a biological process to purify the water further. Wastewater is moved into aeration basins where it is mixed with a community of beneficial microorganisms. Oxygen is supplied to these tanks, enabling the microbes to thrive and consume the remaining organic matter as food. The purified water then flows into another tank, where the microorganisms clump together into “activated sludge” and settle, allowing for their separation and either reuse or disposal. This stage significantly reduces the amount of pollutants.

Tertiary Treatment

Tertiary treatment is an advanced, optional step taken when the treated water needs to meet very high purity standards for purposes like landscape irrigation, industrial applications, or discharge into sensitive ecosystems. Its objective is to remove any residual contaminants left after the secondary stage.

Tertiary treatment typically involves:

• Advanced Filtration: The water is passed through various filters, such as beds of sand, gravel, or activated carbon, to capture any remaining tiny particles and suspended solids.
• Nutrient Removal: Specialized processes are used to extract excess nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which can otherwise contribute to the overgrowth of algae in rivers and lakes.
• Disinfection: This crucial final step eliminates any remaining disease-causing pathogens like bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Common methods include treatment with chlorine, exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, or ozonation.

Question 7.

Why is open dumping of solid waste not advisable ? What is done while segregating solid waste ?

Ans:

Open dumping of solid waste is not advisable for several critical reasons:

• Environmental Pollution: It leads to severe soil and water contamination as rain washes toxins from the waste into the ground and nearby water sources. The decomposition of organic waste also releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas, contributing to air pollution.
• Health Hazards: Open dumps become breeding grounds for disease-carrying pests like rats and mosquitoes, which can spread illnesses to nearby communities. The burning of waste, often done to reduce volume, releases toxic fumes that cause respiratory problems and other health issues.
• Aesthetic Degradation: Dumps are an eyesore, producing foul odors and making the surrounding area unsightly and unpleasant to live in.

Segregation of Solid Waste

• Biodegradable/Organic Waste: Kitchen scraps, garden waste, and other materials that can be composted.
• Non-Biodegradable/Dry Waste: Recyclable materials like paper, plastic, glass, and metal, as well as non-recyclable items.
• Hazardous Waste: Items that are harmful to health and the environment, such as batteries, light bulbs, and expired medicines.

Question 8.
“Better safe than sorry” is the guiding principle for control of Nuclear pollution. In this context answer the following :

• Explain-the three principles of radiation protection.

Ans:

This cautious approach is embodied by the three core principles of radiation protection:

• Justification: Any activity that involves radiation exposure must have a clear net benefit. The positive outcomes must be significant enough to justify any associated risk to individuals or the environment.
• Optimization (ALARA): This principle mandates that all radiation doses be kept “As Low As Reasonably Achievable.” This is achieved by minimizing the duration of exposure, maximizing the distance from the source, and using protective shielding.
• Dose Limitation: No individual’s radiation dose is permitted to exceed specific regulatory limits. These limits act as a safety cap, ensuring that no one receives a dose high enough to cause serious, deterministic health effects.

• What should one do to protect oneself from radiation contamination ?

Ans:

When considering safety from radiation contamination, the three fundamental principles for personal protection are:

• Reduce the Duration of Exposure: The objective is to minimize your time in the vicinity of a radioactive source by moving away from the area as quickly as you can.
• Maintain Maximum Separation: The strength of a radiation field diminishes significantly as you move away from its origin. A simple yet powerful way to reduce your exposure is to create as much distance as possible between yourself and the source of the radiation.
• Implement a Physical Barrier: Placing a dense, solid material between yourself and the radiation source is crucial. Materials such as concrete or lead, or even the structure of a building or the earth itself (like in a basement or shelter), can absorb the radiation and provide substantial protection.

• How should radioactive waste be stored and disposed of?

Ans:

• Low-level waste (e.g., contaminated tools, clothing) is often stored temporarily on-site to allow decay, then disposed of in engineered near-surface disposal facilities.
• High-level waste (e.g., spent nuclear fuel) is first placed in interim storage—either in water pools or dry casks—to cool down. For permanent disposal, it is planned to be sealed in canisters and buried deep underground in stable geological formations, a process known as deep geological disposal.