The Delhi Sultanate 

The Delhi Sultanate: A Concise Overview

The Delhi Sultanate emerged in the early 13th century, establishing Muslim rule in India after Muhammad Ghori’s victory over Prithviraj Chauhan. Following Ghori’s death, his general, Qutb al-Din Aibak, founded the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty, setting up the first centralized Islamic state. Over roughly three centuries, five dynasties—the Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis—governed Delhi. These rulers expanded their dominion across India, introducing new administrative systems and integrating Persian and Islamic cultural elements that influenced Indian society, art, architecture, and language.

This era saw both significant territorial expansion, under leaders like Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and periods of internal strife and external threats from regional kingdoms and Mongol invaders. Despite often autocratic rule, some sultans, such as Firuz Shah Tughlaq, contributed to public works and education. 

The end came in 1526 when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat, marking the beginning of the Mughal Empire. Despite its fall, the Delhi Sultanate left a lasting cultural and historical legacy, enriching India’s diverse heritage.

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Who laid the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate?
Ans:

Rise to Power

Qutb al-Din Aibak was a slave of Mu’izz al-Din Muhammad Ghori, a Ghurid sultan who conquered a vast amount of territory in northern India in the late 12th century. Aibak served as a loyal and capable commander in Ghori’s campaigns. When Ghori was assassinated in 1206, Aibak was in charge of the Ghurid territories in India. 

Significant Contributions

Beyond simply establishing the Sultanate, Aibak’s rule was notable for several key contributions. He initiated the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi, one of the earliest surviving mosques in India, and the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer. He also began the construction of the Qutb Minar, a towering minaret that remains a landmark today. These architectural projects symbolize the blending of Islamic and Indian architectural styles that would become a hallmark of the Sultanate period.

Question 2.
Name any two Inscriptions to reconstruct the age of the Delhi Sultanate.
Ans:

To reconstruct the age of the Delhi Sultanate, two important inscriptions are:

1. The Pehowa Inscription:  It provides crucial historical context about the region and its rulers immediately preceding the Sultanate’s rise. It helps establish the earlier state of Delhi.
   
2. The Sarban Inscription: Found in South Delhi, this inscription offers a brief historical account of Delhi up to the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq (1325-1351). This makes it directly relevant to the Sultanate period itself, providing insights into its ongoing history.

Question 3.

Mention any two ways in which Inscriptions may be used for reconstructing the history of the Delhi Sultanate.

Ans:

Inscriptions are incredibly valuable archaeological sources for reconstructing the history of the Delhi Sultanate, offering a direct and often contemporaneous window into the past. 

1. Corroborating and Supplementing Literary Accounts: While Persian chronicles (like the Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi) are significant literary sources for the Delhi Sultanate, they often suffer from biases, exaggerations, or omissions (e.g., focusing heavily on courtly life and neglecting regional developments or the lives of common people). Inscriptions, being typically official records carved into stone or metal, provide objective, factual information that can verify or challenge the narratives found in literary texts. They can also shed light on regional administrative practices or the presence of specific officials that might not be detailed in central chronicles.
   
2. Providing Insights into Socio-Cultural, Religious, and Administrative Aspects: Inscriptions are not just about political history; they offer rich details about various facets of society during the Sultanate.
   
   • Religious Beliefs and Practices: Inscriptions on mosques, tombs, and other religious structures often contain verses from the Quran, Sufi teachings, or dedications to saints, revealing the prevalent Islamic religious practices and the intermingling of Sufi traditions. They can also indicate the religious tolerance or intolerance of a particular ruler or period.
   • Administrative Structures and Titles: Many inscriptions record land grants, charitable endowments, or the construction of public works (like wells, bridges, or serais), often mentioning the names and titles of officials involved. This provides direct evidence of the administrative hierarchy, landholding patterns, and the welfare initiatives undertaken by the state or individuals.
   • Linguistic and Artistic Evolution: The language used in inscriptions (often Persian, Arabic, or even Sanskrit, sometimes bilingual) reflects the linguistic landscape of the era and the evolving cultural synthesis. The calligraphic styles and decorative motifs used in these inscriptions also offer insights into the artistic trends and architectural innovations of the period, demonstrating the fusion of indigenous and Islamic artistic traditions.

Question 4.

Mention any two architectural features of Qutab Minar.

Ans:

Here are two prominent architectural features:

1. Tapering Stories with Projecting Balconies and Fluted Design: The Qutub Minar is characterized by its distinct five storeys, each progressively tapering in diameter as it ascends. What makes it particularly striking are the projecting balconies that encircle each storey. Furthermore, the shaft of the minaret features a varied fluted design: the first storey has alternating angular and rounded flutings, the second is purely circular, and the third has star-shaped flutings, showcasing a dynamic and evolving aesthetic.
   
2. Blend of Materials and Calligraphic Inscriptions: The Qutub Minar is primarily constructed from red and buff sandstone, giving it its distinctive reddish hue. The upper two storeys, added later by Firuz Shah Tughlaq, incorporate marble and sandstone, creating a visually distinct variegated look. A crucial architectural feature, integral to its Islamic design, is the presence of bands of richly carved inscriptions from the Quran and historical records. These inscriptions, in various Arabic scripts like Kufic and Thuluth, wrap around the exterior of the tower, serving not only as decorative elements but also as historical documents that provide information about its construction and subsequent repairs.

Question 5.

Mention any two measures taken by Alauddin Khalji for control of the Market.

Ans:

Alauddin Khalji implemented stringent measures to control the market, primarily to maintain a large and efficient army at affordable costs and to prevent rebellions by curbing the wealth of nobles and ensuring the availability of essential goods. Here are two key measures:

1. Strict Price Fixation and Control: Alauddin Khalji introduced a comprehensive system of price control, fixing the prices of almost all commodities, from essential food grains (like wheat, barley, rice) to cloth, horses, slaves, and even daily necessities like vegetables and fruits. These prices were set at significantly low levels and remained stable throughout his reign. To enforce this, he established separate markets for different categories of goods (e.g., a grain market called Mandi, a cloth market called Sarai-i-Adl, and markets for horses, slaves, and cattle) and appointed a Shahna-i-Mandi (Superintendent of Markets) for each, along with a team of intelligence officers (barids) and secret spies (munhiyans) to monitor compliance. Severe punishments, including physical mutilation or confiscation of property, were meted out to those who violated the fixed prices or used false weights.
   
2. Regulation of Supply and Prevention of Hoarding: To ensure a steady supply of goods at the fixed low prices and prevent artificial scarcity, Alauddin took measures to control the supply chain. He ordered peasants in the Doab region (the fertile land between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers) to pay land revenue in kind, with the collected grain stored in state granaries. These granaries served as a buffer, releasing grain into the market during times of shortage to stabilize prices. He also strictly prohibited hoarding by merchants and cultivators. Merchants were required to register with the state and were often given advances to procure goods from distant areas and sell them at the prescribed rates in Delhi. 

Question 6.

Mention any two schemes of Muhammed Tughlaq that failed and made him extremely unpopular.

Ans:

Here are two of Muhammad Tughlaq’s failed schemes that led to his unpopularity:

1. Transfer of Capital to Daulatabad: He forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi to a new capital, Daulatabad, causing immense suffering and death, only to later order them back, leading to further hardship.
2. Introduction of Token Currency: He introduced copper and brass coins as legal tender but failed to control their minting, leading to widespread counterfeiting, economic chaos, and the collapse of the currency system.

Question 7.

Why did Muhammad Tughlak’s scheme for increased taxation in Doab fail ?

Ans:

Here’s a breakdown of why it failed:

• Ill-timed Levy Amidst Calamity: The Sultan’s decision to significantly raise land taxes (reportedly up to half of the produce) in the highly fertile Doab coincided tragically with a devastating famine and prolonged drought. Farmers, already struggling with drastically reduced yields, found it impossible to meet these suddenly inflated revenue requirements.
  
• Inflexible and Harsh Collection: Despite the widespread agricultural distress, the imperial tax collectors pursued the new assessments with an iron fist, showing little empathy or flexibility. Their ruthless methods only intensified the suffering of the peasantry.
  
• Mass Exodus and Agricultural Collapse: Faced with the impossible burden of taxes and the brutal collection practices, a large number of peasants had no option but to abandon their fields and seek refuge elsewhere, often in forested areas. This mass desertion severely crippled agricultural output in the very area intended to generate increased revenue.
  
• Belated and Insufficient Remedial Efforts: Though Muhammad Tughlaq eventually recognized the catastrophic consequences and introduced relief measures like grain distribution and agricultural loans, these interventions came too late to mitigate the widespread damage and deep-seated resentment that had already taken hold. The agricultural sector had already suffered a major setback.

Question 8.

Mention any one reason why Muhammad Tughlaq decided to transfer his Capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) ?

Ans:

One primary reason Muhammad Tughlaq decided to transfer his capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) was to establish a more centrally located capital for better administration of his vast and expanding empire.

His dominion stretched across much of the Indian subcontinent, and Daulatabad, situated in the Deccan, was perceived as a more strategic geographic center from which he could effectively govern both the northern and southern regions. He also aimed to secure the capital from the constant threat of Mongol invasions in the north.

Question 9.

Who was the greatest of the Lodi Kings?

Ans:

Sikandar Lodi stands out as the most accomplished ruler of the Lodi Dynasty, solidifying its power and prosperity. His achievements include:

• Territorial Expansion and Integration: He significantly extended the Lodi dominion, effectively bringing key regions like Jaunpur, Chanderi, Dholpur, and Bihar under central control, actively striving to restore the Delhi Sultanate’s past grandeur.
• Economic Impetus and Regulation: He invigorated the economy by fostering trade and commerce, eliminating internal tariffs, and maintaining the affordability of essential commodities.
• Patronage of Culture and Knowledge: A learned individual who composed Persian poetry himself, Sikandar Lodi actively championed scholarship. He commissioned the translation of important Sanskrit texts into Persian and established mosques that functioned as vital centers of learning.
• Strategic Urban Development: His foresight led to the founding of Agra in 1504, a city of considerable strategic importance, which he later designated as his capital, thus laying the groundwork for its future prominence.

Question 10.

Who was the commander-in-chief of the army during the Sultanate period ?

Ans:

While a distinct military administration, known as the Diwan-i-Arz, existed and was overseen by an official titled the Ariz-i-Mumalik, this dignitary’s responsibilities primarily encompassed:

• Enlistment and management of troops.
• Upholding military discipline and ensuring troop readiness.
• Logistical support, including equipment, animal provisions, and supplies.

Nevertheless, the Ariz-i-Mumalik did not serve as the battlefield commander. The definitive power and strategic command for all military campaigns and overarching strategic choices remained solely with the Sultan.

Question 11.

Who was the highest officer in the government during the Delhi Sultanate ?

Ans:

During the Delhi Sultanate, while the Sultan was the ultimate head of state, possessing absolute power in all spheres (executive, judicial, military, and sometimes even religious), the highest officer in the government, in terms of administrative day-to-day functioning and influence, was generally the Wazir (Prime Minister).

The Wazir headed the Diwan-i-Wizarat, which was the finance department, responsible for:

• Managing the state’s revenue and expenditure.
• Overseeing tax collection.
• Controlling the treasury.
• Advising the Sultan on all administrative matters.

The Wazir’s position was immensely powerful, often acting as the Sultan’s chief advisor and, in many cases, virtually running the administration. In times of a weak Sultan or during a Sultan’s absence, the Wazir could even wield powers akin to a regent.

Other important high-ranking officials included:

• Ariz-i-Mumalik: Head of the military department (Diwan-i-Arz).
• Qazi-ul-Quzat: Chief Justice, overseeing the judicial system.
• Naib-i-Mamlakat (or Naib-i-Mulk): This post, sometimes translated as “Deputy Sultan” or “Lieutenant of the Realm,” was not always present but, when it existed, could hold immense power, sometimes even surpassing the Wazir, particularly under weaker Sultans. This officer could act as the Sultan’s representative and take significant decisions in his absence.

Question 12.

Name the two important provinces under Khljis and the Tughlaqs.

Ans:

During the Delhi Sultanate, especially under the Khiljis and the Tughlaqs, the empire expanded significantly, leading to the formation of several important provinces. Two prominent examples that were crucial for both dynasties due to their economic importance, strategic location, or administrative significance include:

1. Gujarat: This province was incredibly rich due to its fertile lands and crucial port cities, which facilitated lucrative overseas trade. Its control was vital for revenue generation and access to international trade routes. Both the Khiljis (under Alauddin Khilji) and the Tughlaqs (especially Muhammad bin Tughlaq) exerted considerable effort to control and maintain this province.
   
2. Deccan (including regions like Devagiri/Daulatabad, Warangal, and parts of the South): While not a single unified province in the modern sense, the Deccan region became immensely important, particularly under Alauddin Khilji’s southern campaigns led by Malik Kafur, and later under Muhammad bin Tughlaq who even attempted to shift his capital to Daulatabad (Devagiri) to better administer this vast and wealthy area. Despite the challenges of maintaining control over such a distant territory, its economic and strategic value made it a focal point for both dynasties.

Question 13.

Mention any two sources of revenue during the Sultanate period.

Ans:

1. Land Revenue (Kharaj/Ushr): This was by far the most significant source of income.
   
   • Kharaj was the land tax imposed mainly on non-Muslim cultivators. The rate varied over time and with different rulers, often ranging from one-third to one-half of the produce.
   • Ushr was a religious land tax levied on Muslim cultivators, typically a smaller share (e.g., one-tenth) of their produce.
2. Jizya: This was a poll tax levied on non-Muslim subjects (known as dhimmis) in return for protection and exemption from military service. It varied based on the financial capability of the individual, and certain groups like women, children, the elderly, and the infirm were usually exempted.

Question 14.

Name any two archaeological sources to reconstruct the age of the Delhi Sultanate.

Ans:

1. Monuments and Architecture: Structures like the Qutub Minar, various mosques, tombs, and forts reveal architectural styles, urban planning, and the power of the rulers.
2. Coins: Sultanate coinage provides chronological data, economic insights (metals, denominations), geographical reach of the empire (mint locations), and even religious or political messages through inscriptions.

Question 15.

Mention any two ways in which Iltutmish consolidated the Turkish conquests in India?

Ans:

Iltutmish solidified the Delhi Sultanate in two key ways:

1. Crushing Rivals and Securing Territory: He decisively defeated rival Turkish generals and subdued rebellious Hindu chiefs, re-establishing and expanding the Sultanate’s control over fractured territories like Bengal and Bihar.
2. Building Key Institutions: He implemented the Iqta system for administration and military organization, introduced standardized silver (tanka) and copper (jital) currency for economic stability, and secured legitimacy from the Abbasid Caliph, strengthening his rule.

Question 16.

Who was Razia Sultana? Who plotted against her?

Ans:

Her downfall was orchestrated primarily by the Turkic nobility, who opposed her rule due to:

• Gender prejudice: They found it unacceptable to be governed by a woman.
• Her assertive governance: Razia exercised genuine authority, contrary to their hopes for a figurehead.
• Favoring non-Turkic officials: Her promotion of individuals like Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut, an Abyssinian, alienated the established Turkic elite.

Question 17.

What measures were taken by Balban to crush the Turkish Nobles?

Ans:

Balban took several harsh measures to consolidate his power and crush the influence of the Turkish nobles:

1. Eliminated the “Corps of Forty”: He systematically executed, poisoned, transferred, or demoted powerful members of this group of influential Turkish nobles who had undermined previous Sultans.
2. Established a Spy System: He created an extensive network of spies (Barids) to monitor nobles and report any disloyalty directly to him.
3. Strict Justice: He enforced a rigid and impartial system of justice, punishing even high-ranking nobles severely for minor offenses to instill fear and demonstrate his supreme authority.
4. Elevated Monarchy’s Prestige: He adopted titles like “Zil-i-Ilahi” (Shadow of God) and introduced strict court rituals (like Sijda and Paibos) to enhance the Sultan’s divine and unchallengeable status.
5. “Blood and Iron” Policy: He used ruthless military force and severe punishments to suppress all opposition, ensuring no one dared challenge his rule.

Question 18.

Mention any two new elements of architecture style introduced by the Muslims in India.

Ans:

The introduction of Muslim rule in India led to a profound transformation in architectural design, resulting in the distinct Indo-Islamic or Indo-Saracenic style. This new style marked a significant departure from traditional Indian building methods, integrating new structural and decorative elements to create a unique and lasting architectural legacy.

Architectural Innovations: Arches and Domes

Before the arrival of Muslim rulers, Indian architecture predominantly used the trabeate system. This technique, also known as the “post and lintel” method, relied on placing horizontal beams (lintels) on top of vertical columns to support a roof. This approach, while effective, limited the size of open spaces and led to dense, column-filled interiors.

In contrast, Islamic architects introduced the arcuate system, which utilized true arches, vaults, and domes. This innovation enabled the creation of vast, open halls and large domes that were previously impossible to construct. These structural advancements not only enhanced the stability of the buildings but also contributed to a sense of spaciousness and grandeur.

Decorative and Symbolic Elements

Muslim architecture also brought with it new forms of ornamentation and symbolic structures. The minaret, a tall, slender tower, became a prominent feature. While its primary function was practical—to provide a platform for the muazzin to call the faithful to prayer—it also served as a powerful visual symbol of Islamic presence. The Qutub Minar in Delhi is a prime example of an early and imposing minaret.

In place of the figurative sculptures common in traditional Indian art, Indo-Islamic architecture emphasized abstract ornamentation, reflecting the Islamic prohibition against depicting human or animal forms in religious contexts. This led to two main forms of surface decoration:

• Calligraphy: Verses from the Quran, royal edicts, and historical texts were inscribed in elegant Arabic and Persian scripts. This intricate writing served both as a decorative element and as a means to convey spiritual messages and historical information.
• Geometric Patterns: Complex designs featuring interlocking geometric shapes, often interwoven with stylized floral motifs known as arabesque, became a hallmark of the style. 

Question 19.

Mention two important features of mosques.

Ans:

Mosques, serving as central places of worship for Muslims, incorporate distinct architectural and practical elements. Here are two notable characteristics:

1. Mihrab: This is a decorative, concave recess built into the prayer hall’s wall, precisely indicating the Qibla. The Qibla represents the orientation towards the Kaaba in Mecca, which Muslims face during their obligatory prayers. The mihrab acts as the visual focus for worshippers and is frequently the most ornate section of the mosque, often embellished with intricate calligraphy and geometric designs.
   
2. Minaret: A minaret is a towering, slender structure typically integrated into or standing beside a mosque. Historically, its main function was to provide an elevated platform for the muezzin (the one who calls to prayer) to deliver the Adhan five times daily, ensuring the call resonated throughout the vicinity. Beyond its practical use, the minaret also functions as a striking visual landmark, signifying the presence of Islamic faith within a city or landscape.

Question 20.

How did Alaudin Khalji expand his empire?

Ans:

Alauddin Khalji expanded his empire through:

1. Northern Conquests: He systematically conquered wealthy and strategic regions in North India, including Gujarat and major Rajput states like Ranthambore and Chittor, securing vast resources and consolidating his power.
2. Southern Expeditions (through Malik Kafur): He sent his general Malik Kafur on expeditions into the Deccan and far South. While these regions weren’t always directly annexed, they yielded immense wealth as tribute, significantly enriching the Sultanate.
3. Strong Military and Administration: He maintained a large, disciplined army through reforms and economic measures (like price control) to support his continuous campaigns and effectively suppress internal dissent.

Question 21.

Who was Timur Lang?

Ans:

Based on the information you’ve provided about Timur Lang, also known as Tamerlane, here is a concise summary of his life and legacy.

Military Dominance and Expansion

Timur Lang, a 14th-century Turco-Mongol conqueror, was a military genius who built a vast empire stretching across Central Asia, Persia, and parts of India and Russia. Despite not being a direct blood descendant of Genghis Khan, he positioned himself as the rightful heir to the Mongol Empire’s legacy. He led a series of successful military campaigns, remaining undefeated throughout his life, and his strategic prowess is still studied today.

Brutality and Cultural Patronage

Timur’s conquests were known for their extreme brutality and the mass destruction of cities that resisted his forces. This ruthlessness earned him a fearsome reputation across his vast territories. In stark contrast to his military campaigns, he was also a great patron of the arts, architecture, and scholarship. Under his rule, his capital, Samarkand, flourished as a hub of learning and architectural splendor, showcasing the dual nature of his reign.

The Invasion of India

One of Timur’s most significant campaigns was his invasion of India in 1398. He took advantage of the crumbling Delhi Sultanate, sacking Delhi and plundering a vast amount of wealth. This invasion left a trail of devastation and critically weakened the Delhi Sultanate, leaving it vulnerable to future invasions.

Enduring Legacy

Timur’s empire, the Timurid Empire, laid the foundation for several later Islamic “gunpowder empires.” His most direct legacy is seen in the Mughal Empire of India, as its founder, Babur, was a direct descendant of Timur. This lineage highlights the lasting impact of Timur’s conquests and his role in shaping the political landscape of Central and South Asia.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.

Give a brief account of the reign of Alauddin Khalji under the following headings.

(a) His main conquests

(b)Treatment meted out to the rulers of Southern India.

Ans:

Here’s an overview of Alauddin Khalji’s reign:

(a) Major Conquest Alauddin Khalji undertook ambitious military campaigns to enlarge the Delhi Sultanate. His significant victories in North India included:

• Gujarat (1299): This prosperous coastal territory yielded considerable wealth and access to vital trade routes.
• Rajput strongholds: He systematically subjugated powerful Rajput kingdoms such as Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Siwana (1308), and Jalore (1311), thereby consolidating his influence across central and western India.

These campaigns extended to:

• Devagiri (1306-07, 1308): The Yadava kingdom.
• Warangal (1310): The Kakatiya kingdom.
• Dwarasamudra (1311): The Hoysala kingdom.
• Madurai (1311): The Pandya kingdom in the extreme south.

(b) Policy Towards Southern Indian Rulers Alauddin Khalji’s strategy for the rulers of Southern India differed markedly from his northern approach. His core aim was economic gain and the establishment of his paramountcy, rather than direct administrative integration.

• Monarchs of states like Devagiri, Warangal, and Dwarasamudra were vanquished but typically permitted to retain their thrones and territories, avoiding outright annexation.
• In specific instances, such as with the Yadava king Ramachandra of Devagiri, the defeated ruler received respectful treatment and even honorary titles after consenting to tribute payments and cooperation in subsequent southern campaigns.

Question 2.

Why did Muhammad Tughlaq’s following schemes prove a failure?

(a) An increase in taxation in the Doab.

(b) Introduction of Token Currency.

Ans:

(a) 

• Ill-timed Famine: He imposed a heavy tax increase (up to 50%) on the fertile Doab region at the exact time it was suffering from a severe famine and drought. Farmers were already struggling to produce enough, let alone pay higher taxes.
• Ruthless Collection: Despite the dire conditions, tax collectors were unyielding and used harsh methods, forcing many peasants to abandon their lands and flee, which further reduced agricultural output.
• Delayed Relief: Though Tughlaq later tried to offer relief, it came too late, by which point widespread suffering and agricultural decline had already occurred.

(b) Introduction of Token Currency: This experiment also proved a failure due to:

• Widespread Counterfeiting: The major flaw was the lack of proper government control over the minting process. People began forging the copper and brass coins in their homes, as they were declared to have the same value as precious silver and gold coins.
• Economic Chaos: The market was flooded with fake coins, leading to severe inflation, the disappearance of genuine silver and gold coins (hoarding), and a complete disruption of trade and commerce.

Question 3.

Give an account of the administration of the Sultanate of Delhi under the following heads:

(a) Position of the Sultan (b) His Ministers

Ans:

Here’s a brief overview of Delhi Sultanate administration:

(a) Position of the Sultan: The Sultan was the absolute supreme authority, holding all executive, judicial, and military power. His word was law, and he was the source of all appointments and grants, making the administration’s effectiveness largely dependent on his personal strength.

(b) His Ministers: The Sultan ruled with the help of key ministers:

• Wazir: The powerful Prime Minister, head of finance, and chief advisor.
• Ariz-i-Mumalik: Head of the military administration (recruitment, supplies).
• Diwan-i-Insha: Handled royal correspondence and official documents.
• Diwan-i-Risalat: Dealt with foreign affairs and sometimes appeals.
• Sadr-us-Sudur: Managed religious affairs, charities, and Islamic law.
• Qazi-ul-Quzat: The Chief Justice, overseeing the judicial system.

Question 4.

Study the picture of Qutab Minar and answer the following questions:

(a) Where is it located ?

(b) Name the rulers who started and completed the construction of the structure.

(c) Name the Muslim Saint after whom the structure is named.

(d) Mention three important features of the structure.

Ans:

The Qutub Minar, a towering symbol of Delhi’s rich past, stands proudly in the historic Mehrauli area of South Delhi. Its construction, initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in the late 12th century, was a testament to the new Mamluk Dynasty’s architectural ambition. The tower’s subsequent levels were added by his successor, Iltutmish, and it was further refined with later restorations by rulers like Firoz Shah Tughlaq and Sikandar Lodi, each leaving their mark on its form. Its name is a tribute to the revered Sufi saint, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, connecting the monument to a spiritual heritage.

Architectural Grandeur and Detail

Standing approximately 73 meters (240 feet) tall, the Qutub Minar commands attention with its graceful, tapering form. It’s a five-story structure, with each level set off by a distinctive protruding balcony. The first three storeys are constructed from vibrant red sandstone, while the upper two elegantly blend marble and sandstone, creating a striking visual contrast. A unique feature of the first three levels is their textured surface, with alternating angular and rounded flutings that create a rhythmic, vertical pattern.

Beyond its impressive stature, the minaret is a masterpiece of decorative art. The entire surface is a canvas for elaborate carvings and calligraphic inscriptions. These carvings showcase verses from the Quran in both the Kufic and Naskh scripts, transforming the tower into a living text. Adding to the decorative richness are intricate ornamental bands and the beautiful muqarnas, or “stalactite” vaulting, that can be seen supporting the balconies. Together, these elements tell a story of architectural evolution, religious devotion, and masterful craftsmanship.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
Short Answer Questions:

Question 1.
Who was the founder of the slave dynasty in India ?
Ans:

Qutb ud-Din Aibak.

Question 2.

Why was Qutubuddin known as Lakhbaksh ?

Ans:

Qutb ud-Din Aibak earned the moniker Lakhbaksh (or Lakh Bakhsh) due to his unrivaled munificence and philanthropic spirit.

He acquired this title as a result of his consistent and considerable disbursements of wealth and provisions to the impoverished and those in need. His generosity was widely acknowledged by contemporary historians and the general populace, solidifying his standing as an exceptionally liberal and benevolent sovereign.

Question 3.

Mention any two military reforms introduced by Alauddin.

Ans:

Alauddin Khalji instituted critical military reforms to bolster his forces and consolidate power. Here are two notable changes he introduced:

1. Monetary Compensation for Troops and Permanent Army Establishment: Unlike previous practices where soldiers often received land grants as payment, Alauddin transitioned to direct cash payments (naqd) dispensed from the state treasury. This shift ensured the soldiers’ direct allegiance to the Sultan and removed intermediary dependencies. To fuel his expansive conquests and fortify defenses against Mongol incursions, he established an unprecedentedly large, disciplined, and perpetual standing army, a significant innovation for the Sultanate era.
   
2. Horse Branding (Dagh) and Soldier Identification Records (Chehra): To combat malpractices and uphold the integrity of his cavalry, Alauddin introduced two vital procedures:
   
   • Dagh (Horse Branding): All military horses were branded with the Sultan’s insignia. This measure was designed to prevent soldiers from illicitly substituting superior horses with inferior ones during inspections or from presenting the same horse multiple times to claim pay for different personnel.
   • Chehra (Soldier’s Descriptive Roll): A meticulous physical description and identifying marks of each soldier were recorded. This system ensured that only genuine recruits were accounted for during military reviews, preventing the use of proxies to draw salaries.

Question 4.

How did Alauddin Khalji expand his empire ?

Ans:

Alauddin Khalji expanded his empire primarily through:

1. Conquest of Northern India: He systematically annexed strategic Rajput kingdoms and wealthy regions like Gujarat, Ranthambore, and Chittor, consolidating direct control.
2. Southern Expeditions for Wealth: He sent his general Malik Kafur on ambitious campaigns into the Deccan and the Far South. These expeditions focused on acquiring immense wealth and imposing tribute on local rulers, rather than direct annexation, due to the logistical challenges of governing distant territories.
3. Repelling Mongol Invasions: Successfully defending his northern frontiers against repeated Mongol incursions secured his base and allowed him to focus on internal expansion.

Question 5.

Mention the two controversial steps taken by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.

Ans:

l ambitious, yet controversial and often disastrous, administrative measures. Two of his most debated steps were:

1. Transfer of Capital (from Delhi to Daulatabad/Devagiri): This move was intended to better administer his vast empire and to control the Deccan more effectively. However, the forced mass migration caused immense hardship, loss of life, and economic disruption. Eventually, the capital had to be shifted back to Delhi, highlighting the failure of this grand plan.
   
2. Introduction of Token Currency: Around 1329-1330, faced with a shortage of silver and gold, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq introduced brass and copper coins as token currency, which were supposed to have the same value as silver tankas. The state failed to control minting, leading to widespread forgery by common people. This influx of counterfeit coins devalued the currency, disrupted trade, and caused severe economic chaos, forcing the Sultan to eventually withdraw the token currency.

Question 6.

Which dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate built The Qutab Minar ?

Ans:

The Qutub Minar’s construction was a multi-generational project, beginning with its foundation and first storey laid by Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate’s Mamluk Dynasty. His successor, Iltutmish, continued the work, adding three more storeys to the structure. After lightning struck the minaret, damaging its upper levels, Firoz Shah Tughlaq of the Tughlaq Dynasty took charge, repairing the existing damage and adding the final two storeys. This collective effort from different rulers across two dynasties resulted in the iconic minaret we see today.

Question 7.

Who was the commander-in-chief of the army during the Sultanate period ?

Ans:

While there was a dedicated military department called Diwan-i-Arz, headed by an official known as the Ariz-i-Mumalik, this official was responsible for military administration, recruitment, equipment, and maintaining the army’s records and discipline. However, the ultimate command and leadership in battle rested with the Sultan. In times of war, the Sultan would personally lead the army or appoint a trusted general to act as commander under his direct authority.

Question 8.

Name the department which dealt with state correspondence during the Sultanate period.

Ans:

During the Sultanate period, the Diwan-i-Insha functioned as the paramount office overseeing all written state communications. This department bore the responsibility for crafting and sending out diverse official documents. Its duties encompassed preparing imperial commands, exchanging dispatches with provincial rulers and foreign dignitaries, and managing all internal government correspondence.

Question 9.

What was the iqta system ?

Ans:

The Iqta system was a land-based administrative framework that was central to the governance of the Delhi Sultanate . It was an innovative method used to manage a sprawling empire and sustain a powerful military without depending exclusively on a cash-based economy. The system operated by granting land in exchange for essential services.

How It Functioned

The Sultan would allocate land parcels, called iqtas, to officials and military commanders known as iqtadars. In return for these land grants, the iqtadars were responsible for several critical duties:

• Collecting Revenue: The iqtadars were given the authority to collect taxes from the land within their iqtas.
• Providing Military Support: They were required to maintain a specific number of troops and cavalry, who were always ready for service to the Sultan. This arrangement formed the backbone of the Sultanate’s army.
• Upholding Law and Order: Iqtadars were also tasked with ensuring peace and security within their assigned territories.

Key Characteristics and Purpose

A crucial feature of the Iqta system was its non-hereditary and transferable nature. The Sultan had the power to transfer an iqtadar to a different region or even reclaim the land at will. This prevented the iqtadars from developing a permanent, hereditary power base that could potentially challenge the Sultan’s authority.

Furthermore, any surplus revenue collected by an iqtadar, beyond what was needed for their expenses and troop maintenance, was called fawazil and had to be returned to the central treasury. This measure was vital in ensuring the financial stability and strength of the Sultanate’s central government.

Question 10.

Name the author of the book, Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi.

Ans:

The author is  Ziauddin Barani.

Question 11.

Why were the early rulers of slave dynasty called the Mamluk Sultans ?

Ans:

The early rulers of what is popularly known as the “Slave Dynasty” were called the Mamluk Sultans due to their unique background as “Mamluks.”

Here’s a breakdown of why:

• Meaning of “Mamluk”: The term “Mamluk” (مملوك) is an Arabic word that literally means “owned” or “property.” In this historical context, it referred to a specific class of slave-soldiers. These individuals, often of Turkic or Caucasian origin, were purchased, converted to Islam, and then rigorously trained in military arts, administration, and even court etiquette.
• Their Elite Status: Unlike common slaves, Mamluks were not used for manual labor. They were highly valued, given privileged positions, and formed the backbone of the military and sometimes the administration in various Islamic empires.
• Rise to Power: Through their skill, loyalty, and often strategic alliances, these Mamluks could rise to positions of immense power, even becoming generals or governors. In certain regions, including Egypt and later India, Mamluks eventually asserted their independence and established their own ruling dynasties.
• Founders’ Origins: The key founders and early rulers of this dynasty in Delhi, such as Qutb-ud-Din Aibak and Iltutmish, were indeed Mamluks. They were originally purchased as slaves and trained within the military system of Muhammad Ghori. Although they later gained their freedom, their origins as skilled, “owned” military men distinguished them and led to the term “Mamluk” being used to describe their dynasty.

Question 12.

Mention any two reasons for the defeat of Rajputs by the Turks.

Ans:

The Rajput states ultimately succumbed to Turkish invaders due to a confluence of factors, with two key elements standing out:

1. Political Disunity and Internal Strife: Despite individual acts of valor, the various Rajput kingdoms suffered from a profound lack of unified leadership and consistent cooperation. Their frequent internal conflicts and failure to forge a cohesive alliance against the external Turkish menace allowed the invaders to confront and overcome them in isolated engagements.
2. Advanced Military Strategies and Equipment: The Turkish forces wielded more effective battlefield methodologies and superior weaponry. Their reliance on agile, well-trained cavalry combined with composite bows offered greater mobility and ranged attack capabilities. This contrasted sharply with the Rajput armies, which often favored less flexible formations, heavy reliance on elephants (which could be unpredictable), and a different approach to combat.

Question 13.

Who was Muhammad Ghori ? Why did he invade India ?

Ans:

Muhammad Ghori: A Conqueror’s Motives

Muhammad Ghori was a significant ruler of the Ghurid dynasty in Afghanistan, recognized for laying the groundwork for lasting Muslim rule across the Indian subcontinent. 

His invasions of India stemmed from several key objectives, distinguishing them from earlier raids:

• Empire Building: Unlike mere plunderers, Ghori aimed to conquer and establish a durable empire in India, securing permanent political control over territories.
• Resource Acquisition: India’s legendary wealth in gold, jewels, and fertile lands provided crucial resources to bolster his empire and fund military endeavors against Western rivals like the Khwarazmian Empire.
• Strategic Expansion: Facing formidable threats from the west, India offered a less challenging frontier for expansion, serving as a vital strategic alternative and a source of much-needed resources.
• Exploiting Fragmentation: Northern India was politically fractured into numerous small kingdoms. Ghori shrewdly capitalized on this disunity and lack of a strong central authority.
• Religious Justification: While primarily driven by imperial ambitions, his campaigns also incorporated a religious dimension, helping to garner support and legitimacy within the broader Islamic world.

Question 14.

Mention the four architectural features brought in by the Turks in India.

Ans:

The Turks introduced several distinct architectural features to India, significantly shaping what became known as Indo-Islamic architecture. Four prominent features include:

1. Minarets: Tall, slender towers, usually tapering upwards, became a characteristic feature associated with mosques. They were primarily used for the adhan (call to prayer) and often served as symbolic victory towers.
2. Calligraphy and Geometric Patterns: Islamic architecture strictly prohibited figurative representation. As a result, Turkish builders extensively used calligraphy (especially verses from the Quran) and intricate geometric patterns and arabesques for decorative purposes, often inlaid or carved on stone.
3. Extensive Use of Mortar: While some form of mortar existed, the Turks brought a more advanced and widespread use of lime mortar as a strong binding agent. This significantly enhanced the structural integrity and durability of their large-scale constructions, enabling the creation of grander buildings like domes and arches.

Question 15.

Who was Razia Sultana ? To which dynasty did she belong?

Ans:

Razia Sultana was a remarkable figure in Indian history, serving as the only female Muslim ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. She was known for her intelligence, administrative capabilities, and courage, often defying traditional gender roles by appearing in public without a veil and leading her army in battle.

She belonged to the Mamluk Dynasty (also known as the Slave Dynasty). Iltutmish had recognized Razia’s capabilities and even nominated her as his successor, a highly unusual decision for that era.

Question 16.

What measures were taken by Alauddin Khalji for regulating the prices ?

Ans:

Alauddin Khalji regulated prices by:

1. Fixing prices for all goods, from food to livestock.
2. Establishing separate markets for different commodities.
3. Appointing market superintendents (Shahna-i-Mandi) to enforce rules.
4. Implementing strict anti-hoarding policies and severe punishments for violations.
5. Maintaining government granaries to control supply and releasing stock during shortages.
6. Using an extensive spy network to monitor market activities and report any defiance.

Question 17.

Mention any two measures taken by Alauddin Khilji to crush the power of the nobles.

Ans:

Two significant steps he took were:

1. Confiscation of Wealth and Land Grants: He seized vast tracts of land (Iqtas) and various grants that had been given to nobles and religious figures, thereby curtailing their economic power and making them dependent on the Sultan’s favor.
2. Prohibition of Social Gatherings and Alliances: To prevent conspiracies, he strictly forbade nobles from holding private parties or social gatherings and from forming marriage alliances among themselves without his explicit permission.

Question 18.

With reference to the Delhi Sultanate, mention to which dynasties the following belonged:

(a) Razia Sultana

(b) lbrahim Lodhi

(c) Firoz Shah

(d) Qutb-ud-Din Aibak

Ans:

Dynasties of Delhi Sultanate Rulers

Here are the dynasties associated with those key figures from the Delhi Sultanate:

• Razia Sultana belonged to the Mamluk Dynasty (also known as the Slave Dynasty).
• Ibrahim Lodhi was part of the Lodhi Dynasty.
• Firoz Shah reigned under the Tughlaq Dynasty.
• Qutb-ud-Din Aibak is recognized as the founder of the Mamluk Dynasty (or Slave Dynasty).

Structured Questions.

Question 1.
With reference to the sources of information about the Delhi Sultanate, give the significance of the following:
(a) Inscriptions (b) Qutub Minar
Ans:

They provide direct, first-hand evidence of the period’s political, social, and cultural landscape.

Inscriptions

• Contemporary Records: They are direct, first-hand accounts created at the time of an event or construction, making them more reliable than later written histories that may contain biases or memory errors.
• Administrative and Political Insights: Many inscriptions are official decrees, land grants, or royal proclamations. They offer direct evidence of the Sultanate’s administrative policies, legal system, and governance, including details about rulers, their titles, and military victories.
• Socio-Economic Information: They can reveal details about economic conditions, such as taxes, trade routes, and donations, as well as the names of local officials and merchants, providing a glimpse into the daily life of the period.
• Religious and Cultural Context: Found on religious structures, inscriptions showcase prevailing religious beliefs, architectural styles, and the spread of Islamic culture. The use of multiple languages like Persian, Arabic, and local dialects also highlights linguistic and cultural interactions.
• Corroboration of Written Sources: They often serve to verify information found in literary sources, helping historians confirm dates, names, and events, or fill in gaps where written chronicles are silent.

Qutub Minar

The Qutub Minar is more than just a monument; it’s a historical document in stone that encapsulates the early Delhi Sultanate.

• Symbol of Rule: Initiated by Qutubuddin Aibak and completed by Iltutmish, its construction symbolized the establishment and consolidation of Muslim rule in India. It functioned as both a minaret for the call to prayer and a victory tower.
• Architectural Evolution: The different storeys, built by successive rulers, showcase the evolution of early Indo-Islamic architecture, blending local craftsmanship with Islamic design principles. The materials used, like red sandstone and marble, reflect the period’s resources and artistic choices.
• Epigraphic Evidence: The minaret is covered with numerous inscriptions in Arabic and Persian that provide a wealth of information. They name the rulers involved in its construction and repair, contain Quranic verses reflecting its religious purpose, and even name the architects and craftsmen.
• Cultural and Religious Significance: As part of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque complex, the Minar signifies the religious foundations and the flourishing of Islamic learning and worship during the early Sultanate period.

2. With reference to the Slave dynasty, answer the following questions:

Question 2(a).

Why were the early rulers of the Slave dynasty called the Mamluk Sultans ?

Ans:

The initial rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, commonly known as the “Slave Dynasty,” are more accurately recognized as the Mamluk Sultans because of their distinct origins and pathway to power.

The term “Mamluk” (from the Arabic mamlūk) signifies “owned” or “property,” specifically applied to slave-soldiers. Distinct from common laborers, Mamluks held a privileged status, groomed as elite warriors and administrators within various Islamic empires. Over time, these highly skilled figures often amassed considerable political sway, leading them to establish independent dynasties, as observed in both Egypt and, notably, India.

The foundational figures of this Delhi-based lineage, including Qutubuddin Aibak and Iltutmish, exemplify this trajectory. They began as Mamluks, having been purchased and developed within the military and administrative apparatus of Muhammad Ghori. While they eventually attained freedom, their history as formerly “owned” but exceptionally skilled military personnel underscores their unique rise, which gives the “Mamluk” designation a more precise historical and socio-military significance than the broader “Slave Dynasty.”

Question 2(b).

Who was Qutubuddin Aibak ? State any two of his qualities.

Ans:

Qutubuddin Aibak, originally a Turkic slave, rose through the ranks as a distinguished general for Muhammad Ghori before ultimately founding the Mamluk (or Slave) Dynasty and becoming the first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. He assumed independent authority over Muhammad Ghori’s Indian territories following his assassination in 1206.

Two notable aspects of his character included:

• Profound Generosity: He gained renown as “Lakh Baksh,” a title reflecting his immense charitableness. This moniker underscored his practice of freely distributing large sums of money and gifts to the indigent and those in distress.
• Exceptional Martial Prowess: Aibak was celebrated for his bravery and strategic acumen on the battlefield. His military leadership was pivotal in Muhammad Ghori’s campaigns, which were instrumental in solidifying and expanding Ghurid dominion throughout northern India.

3. With reference to the Khilji dynasty, answer the following questions:

Question 3(a).

What were the steps taken by Alauddin Khilji to regulate prices ?

Ans:

Alauddin Khilji’s price control measures were a revolutionary economic policy for his time, primarily aimed at maintaining a large and efficient standing army without burdening the treasury with high salaries. He implemented a comprehensive system that involved several key steps:

1. Fixation of Prices: Alauddin fixed the maximum prices for a vast range of commodities, from essential food grains like wheat, barley, and rice, to manufactured goods, cloths, horses, cattle, and even slaves. These prices were meticulously set and were non-negotiable.
   
2. Establishment of Separate Markets: To facilitate control and regulation, he established distinct markets in Delhi for different categories of goods:
   
   • Mandi: For food grains.
   • Sarai-i-Adl: For manufactured goods, expensive clothes, imported items, sugar, oil, ghee, etc.
   • Markets for horses, slaves, and cattle.
     
3. Government Granaries and Supply Control: To ensure a steady supply and prevent artificial shortages, Alauddin established large state-owned granaries to store grain collected as land revenue. During times of scarcity, grain from these granaries was released into the market at fixed prices. He also regulated the transport of goods, requiring traders to register and ensuring they brought their produce to the markets.
   
4. Strict Anti-Hoarding Measures: Hoarding of commodities by merchants and farmers was strictly prohibited. Anyone found hoarding or selling above the fixed prices faced severe penalties, including confiscation of goods, fines, and even physical mutilation.
   
5. Elimination of Middlemen (Dalals): He sought to reduce the role of brokers and middlemen who often inflated prices. By directly regulating the sale and purchase, especially of horses, he aimed to keep costs down.
   
6. Robust Spy System (Barids and Munhiyans): An elaborate network of intelligence officers (Barids) and secret spies (Munhiyans) was deployed in all markets. They constantly monitored prices, observed transactions, and reported any violations or attempts at cheating directly to the Sultan. This system was crucial for the effective implementation of his policies.
   
7. Rationing System: During periods of famine or extreme scarcity, a rationing system was introduced in Delhi to ensure that essential grains were distributed equitably to the populace.
   
8. Department of Price Control (Diwan-i-Riyasat): Alauddin established a dedicated department, the “Diwan-i-Riyasat,” headed by a high-ranking official, to oversee the entire market control system and ensure its proper functioning.

Question 3(b).

What were the methods adopted by Alauddin Khilji to crush the power of the nobility ?

Ans:

Alauddin Khilji systematically dismantled the nobility’s power through a series of strict reforms. He confiscated their wealth by seizing land grants and imposing heavy taxes on prosperous nobles, forcing them to depend on the Sultan. To prevent conspiracies, he restricted their social lives, banning private gatherings, controlling matrimonial alliances, and prohibiting alcohol consumption.

A crucial element was his extensive spy network, which kept him informed of all noble activities and potential dissent. Militarily, he centralized control, creating a large standing army paid directly in cash, thereby removing the nobles’ influence over military contingents. Finally, he enforced the law rigidly and equally, punishing nobles severely for any transgression, which instilled fear and ensured their subservience to his absolute authority.

Question 3(c).

What measures did Alauddin Khilji take to increase the revenue?

Ans:

His most notable reforms were in the land revenue system:

1. Land Measurement and High Assessment: He introduced the practice of measuring arable land (masahat or biswa) as the basis for revenue assessment, rather than relying on sharing crops. The state’s demand was fixed at an exceptionally high 50% of the peasant’s produce, making it one of the heaviest land taxes in the Sultanate period.
2. Direct Collection and Abolition of Intermediaries: Alauddin sought to eliminate the influence of powerful village headmen (khuts, muqaddams, chaudharies) who often collected taxes and pocketed a share. He ordered that revenue be collected directly from the peasants by state officials, thereby preventing leakage and increasing the state’s direct income.
3. New Taxes: He imposed additional taxes, including a house tax (Ghari) and a pasture tax (Chari) on grazing animals, further broadening the state’s tax base. The Jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims) also continued to be collected.
4. Confiscation of Grants: To augment crown lands (Khalisa), which generated direct revenue for the Sultan, he ordered the confiscation of numerous land grants (such as iqtas and religious endowments). This brought more land directly under state control for revenue purposes.

These measures, combined with strict market controls that aimed to keep commodity prices low (thereby allowing the large army to be maintained on fixed salaries), ensured a steady and substantial flow of revenue into the Sultanate’s treasury.

4. With reference to the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, explain the following:

Question 4(a).

His attempts to transfer the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.

Ans:

The Sultan’s primary motivations for this drastic move included:

1. Strategic Centrality: Daulatabad was perceived as a more centrally located capital from which to effectively administer the Sultanate’s vast and rapidly expanding territories, particularly the newly conquered regions of the Deccan.
2. Protection from Mongols: It was also seen as a way to safeguard the capital from the persistent threat of Mongol invasions in the northwest frontiers.
3. Integration of the South: Tughlaq intended to foster closer cultural and political ties with the southern regions and ensure their effective governance under direct Sultanate control.

However, the execution of this transfer was disastrous. Muhammad bin Tughlaq famously ordered not just his court, but the entire population of Delhi to relocate, leading to immense suffering and loss of life during the arduous journey of over 1000 kilometers. The lack of proper arrangements for food, water, and shelter along the route and at the new capital resulted in widespread misery and death. Delhi, consequently, became largely deserted.

Realizing the impracticality and the immense human cost, the Sultan eventually ordered a return to Delhi after a few years, causing further hardship to the already ravaged population. This entire episode resulted in a colossal waste of state resources, severe administrative disruption, significant loss of life, and severely damaged Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reputation, contributing to his unpopularity and the perception of him as an eccentric ruler.

Question 4(b).

Introduction of token currency.

Ans:

The introduction of token currency is famously associated with Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate, implemented around 1329-1330 CE.

Facing a perceived shortage of silver and gold, and needing funds for his ambitious military campaigns and administrative reforms, Tughlaq decided to issue copper and brass coins that were assigned the same face value as the silver tanka. His intention was to conserve precious metals and streamline the financial system, possibly inspired by similar experiments in China and Persia.

However, the policy proved to be a catastrophic failure primarily due to a lack of stringent state control over minting. Private individuals began to forge large quantities of counterfeit coins at home, flooding the market with debased currency. This led to a complete loss of public trust in the token coins. Merchants refused to accept them, trade suffered immensely, and the economy plunged into chaos, marked by rampant inflation and devaluation. He had to exchange all copper coins for genuine gold and silver coins from the royal treasury, a process that severely depleted the state’s wealth and further contributed to his unpopularity.

Question 4(c).

Increased taxation in Doab and its consequences.

Ans:

The increased taxation in the Doab region during the Delhi Sultanate period, particularly under Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE), proved to be a catastrophic policy with severe consequences.

Background: The Doab, the fertile plain between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, was one of the most agriculturally productive areas in the Sultanate. Muhammad bin Tughlaq, known for his ambitious projects and desire to raise more revenue for his large army and various administrative reforms (like the introduction of token currency or shifting the capital), decided to significantly increase the land tax in this region. Historical accounts suggest the increase was steep, sometimes described as ten to twenty times the normal levy.

Consequences: The timing of this enhanced taxation proved disastrous as it coincided with a severe famine and plague that ravaged the Doab.

1. Peasant Distress and Abandonment of Land: Farmers, already struggling with crop failures due to drought and disease, found it impossible to pay the exorbitant taxes. Faced with starvation and ruthless tax collection, many peasants abandoned their lands, fled to the forests, or resorted to rebellion.
2. Agricultural Ruin: The abandonment of cultivated land further exacerbated the famine, leading to a sharp decline in agricultural output and widespread hardship across the region. This, paradoxically, reduced the very revenue the Sultan sought to increase.
3. Widespread Revolts: The extreme economic distress and harsh enforcement led to widespread peasant revolts in the Doab, which the Sultanate ruthlessly suppressed, further alienating the populace and destabilizing the region.
4. Economic Setback: The entire policy was a monumental failure, leading to significant economic losses for the state, widespread suffering, and a damaged agricultural base that took years to recover. Though Muhammad bin Tughlaq later attempted to introduce relief measures like agricultural loans (sondhar) and irrigation projects, these efforts came too late and were largely ineffective against the scale of the devastation.

5. With reference to the administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate, give the functions of each of the following officials:

(a) Ariz-i-mumalik

(b) Wazir

Ans:

With reference to the administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate, here are the functions of the specified officials:

(a) Ariz-i-mumalik: His primary functions included the recruitment, organization, and training of the army. He was responsible for the efficient functioning of the military, including the payment of soldiers’ salaries, maintaining discipline, inspecting troops, and ensuring the army was well-equipped. While the Sultan was the supreme commander, the Ariz-i-mumalik played a crucial role in the administration and logistics of military campaigns.

(b) Wazir: He was primarily the head of the finance department (Diwan-i-Wizarat) and oversaw all matters related to state revenue and expenditure. His responsibilities included supervising the collection of taxes, managing the state treasury, and auditing accounts. Beyond finance, the Wazir also exercised significant influence over general administration, advised the Sultan on all important matters of state, and often coordinated the activities of other departments. 

6. Study the picture of Qutab Minar and answer the following questions:

(a) Who began erecting this monument ? Where is it located?

(b) Name the saint after whom the monument is named.

(c) Name the ruler who completed the construction of Qutab Minar.

(d) Mention three important features of the monument.

Ans:

The Qutub Minar: An Enduring Architectural Masterpiece

This esteemed monument derives its name from the venerated Sufi saint, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki.

The Qutub Minar is distinguished by several key features. Rising to an impressive height of approximately 73 meters (240 feet), it presents a tapering form, built from a combination of red sandstone and marble, with each of its distinct stories separated by a projecting balcony. Furthermore, its exterior is richly embellished with bands of intricate calligraphic inscriptions drawn from the Quran and historical accounts, while its lower sections are uniquely characterized by alternating angular and sound flutings, contributing to its iconic visual appeal.

7. With reference to the invasion of Muhammad Ghori,  answer the following questions:

Question 7(a).

Why did Muhammad Ghori invade India ?

Ans:

Muhammad Ghori invaded India primarily due to a combination of factors:

1. Imperial Expansion: His ambition to expand the Ghurid Empire, taking advantage of the fragmented and disunited Rajput kingdoms in North India.
2. Economic Wealth: The lure of India’s immense riches, including gold, jewels, and vast resources, to fund his armies and strengthen his empire.
3. Religious Zeal: A strong motivation stemming from the concept of jihad or ghazwa (holy war) to spread Islam and gain religious merit.

Question 7(b).

Briefly describe the conflict between Prithviraj Chauhan in the two battles of Tarain.

Ans:

The intense confrontation between the Rajput monarch Prithviraj Chauhan and the Ghurid invader Muhammad Ghori reached its climax in two pivotal confrontations at Tarain.

During the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 CE, Prithviraj Chauhan achieved a considerable triumph, compelling a wounded Muhammad Ghori to withdraw. Nonetheless, Prithviraj’s choice to not pursue the defeated Ghurid forces is frequently viewed as a crucial strategic oversight.

Just one year later, in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE), Ghori reappeared with a substantially larger and more resolute army. Utilizing advanced cavalry maneuvers, including swift assaults and simulated retreats, his troops expertly outmaneuvered and decisively defeated the Rajput forces. This overwhelming loss led to Prithviraj Chauhan’s capture and ultimate death, fundamentally dismantling Rajput authority in northern India and establishing the foundation for Turkish dominion.

Question 7(c).

What were the cause of success of the Turks against the Rajputs ?

Ans:

The success of the Turks against the Rajputs in medieval India can be attributed to a combination of superior military strategies, political disunity among Indian rulers, and certain socio-economic factors.

Firstly, military tactics and organization played a crucial role. The Turkish armies, primarily comprising highly disciplined and mobile cavalry, particularly skilled horse archers, employed swift maneuvers, feigned retreats, and hit-and-run tactics that often overwhelmed the more traditional Rajput forces. Rajput armies, while brave, often relied on slower elephant corps and massed infantry, emphasizing individual valor over coordinated strategic maneuvers, and frequently lacked a centralized command structure among their various feudal contingents.

Secondly, the profound political disunity among Rajput kingdoms proved to be a fatal weakness. Rather than forming a united front against the common Turkish threat, various Rajput rulers often engaged in internecine warfare and failed to cooperate effectively. This fragmentation meant that they often faced the Turks in isolated battles, rather than presenting a formidable, cohesive resistance. The absence of a unified political vision or leadership prevented them from leveraging their collective strength.

Thirdly, the Turks possessed certain technological and motivational advantages. Their composite bows and advanced cavalry tactics, combined with superior siege warfare techniques, gave them an edge. Furthermore, the religious zeal (Ghazi ideology) and the promise of plunder often provided strong motivation for the Turkish invaders. In contrast, the Rajput social structure, though valorous, was often rigid and lacked the flexibility to adapt quickly to the new military challenges posed by the Turkish style of warfare.

8. With reference to the social life during the Sultanate period, answer the following questions:

Question 8(a).

Explain the caste divisions which existed in the social structure.

Ans:

Indian society was fundamentally structured by a rigid caste system, a complex hierarchy dictating social standing and life prospects from birth. At its theoretical foundation was the Varna system, segmenting Hindu society into four main classes: Brahmins (priestly/scholarly), Kshatriyas (warrior/ruling), Vaishyas (merchant/farmer), and Shudras (labor/service).

In practice, this extended to thousands of hereditary, occupation-based sub-groups called Jatis. Key features included a strict hierarchy, birth-based membership with virtually no mobility, mandatory endogamy (marriage within one’s caste), and strong occupational specialization. The concept of purity and pollution also heavily influenced interactions, leading to severe discrimination against “outcastes” or “untouchables.” This pervasive system profoundly shaped access to resources, education, and power, perpetuating deep-seated inequalities for centuries.

Question 8(b).

Explain the inequalities which existed between rulers and the ruled during the Sultanate period.

Ans:

The Sultan held absolute political power, with the populace having no rights or representation.

Economically, there was a stark divide: the ruling elite enjoyed immense wealth and luxury, while the majority of the ruled (peasants, artisans) faced poverty and were burdened by heavy taxes. Socially and legally, the ruling class maintained significant privileges, with non-Muslims subjected to the discriminatory jizya tax and a justice system often biased against the common people. Opportunities for education and power were overwhelmingly concentrated within the elite, reinforcing profound disparities.

Question 8(c).

Describe the condition of women during the Sultanate period.

Ans:

During the Sultanate period (13th-16th centuries), the overall condition of women generally saw a decline in status and freedom for many, though it varied by class and religion.

The Purdah system became widespread, particularly among elite Muslim and Rajput women, leading to increased seclusion. Social customs like child marriage became common, and practices like Sati (widow immolation) persisted among Hindu women. Property and educational rights were generally limited for most, though Islamic law offered some inheritance rights for Muslim women. While most women had restricted public roles, lower-class women worked in various sectors. Notable exceptions, like Razia Sultan or women involved in the Bhakti and Sufi movements, showcased instances of power or alternative spheres of influence.