The text outlines a chapter that likely begins by establishing Earth’s spherical shape, clarifying it as an oblate spheroid, and providing various proofs like the curvature of the horizon and celestial observation changes. It would also cover Earth’s key measurements.
The chapter then shifts focus to Earth’s position within the solar system, emphasizing the planet’s unique characteristics—like its ideal distance from the Sun and the presence of liquid water and an atmosphere—that make it habitable.
A significant section would explain Earth’s two primary movements: rotation and revolution. The planet’s daily spin on its tilted axis is shown to be the cause of day and night and varying day lengths. Its annual orbit around the Sun, combined with the axial tilt, is presented as the reason for the seasons, with explanations of how direct sunlight changes throughout the year, defining climatic zones like the Tropics and Polar Circles.
Finally, the chapter would introduce the global coordinate system of latitude and longitude. It would define latitude lines as horizontal measurements from the Equator and longitude lines as vertical measurements from the Prime Meridian, explaining how this grid allows for precise location identification and helps determine time zones. A brief overview of Earth’s internal layers (crust, mantle, and core) might also be included to provide a complete picture of the planet.
Exercises
Question 1.
Mention any two sources to reconstruct the Harappan Civilization.
Ans:
Gaining an understanding of the Harappan civilization is largely dependent on two primary methods of investigation. First and foremost, a detailed study of archaeological sites through excavation is crucial. These digs reveal the structure of their ancient cities, including their well-organized streets, homes, public buildings like the Great Bath, and sophisticated water management systems. By carefully examining the different layers of the earth and the objects found within them, scholars can piece together the civilization’s history, from its beginning and golden age to its eventual decline. The layout of their cities, in particular, offers important clues about their societal organization, urban planning, and technological skills.
Secondly, the various artifacts recovered from these sites provide a vital look into the lives of the Harappan people. These items range from pottery and tools made of stone and metal to distinctive seals with an undeciphered script and images of animals. Also found are intricate pieces of jewelry and everyday items like children’s toys. Every single object tells a story about the daily routines, craftsmanship, religious beliefs, trade networks, and artistic talent of the civilization. For example, the many seals, despite their script still being a mystery, suggest that they had some form of administrative or religious system in place. The fact that similar artifacts are found in different locations also points to a consistent culture and possibly a unified system of governance.
Question 2.
Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?
Ans:
The primary reason the Indus Valley Civilization is overwhelmingly referred to as the Harappan Civilization is that Harappa was the initial major site to be systematically excavated, beginning in the 1920s.
In archaeological practice, it’s customary to name a civilization after its “type site”—the first significant location where its distinctive features are uncovered and thoroughly investigated. In this case, the ancient remains of Harappa, located in modern-day Pakistan, were the first to bring the reality of this advanced urban culture to scholarly attention.
Although the civilization thrived across the expansive Indus River Valley, and many early finds were situated there, later archaeological investigations revealed its considerable geographical reach extending beyond this initial area. Consequently, to employ a more inclusive and accurate label that wasn’t limited by its initial geographical association, and in recognition of the foundational discoveries at Harappa, the designation Harappan Civilization gained prominence and became the scientifically preferred term, especially within archaeological circles and notably in the naming conventions adopted by the Archaeological Survey of India following India’s independence in 1947.
Question 3.
Mention any two important centres of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Ans:
The Indus Valley Civilization stands as one of the world’s earliest urban societies, distinguished by its complex city layouts and remarkable engineering feats. The civilization’s two most famous cities offer a window into this sophisticated culture:
Harappa: This significant city, located in the Punjab region of modern Pakistan, was a cornerstone of civilization. It is well-known for its methodical organization, which included massive granaries for food storage and structures built with standardized, uniformly sized bricks. These features underscore the advanced urban planning and the structured society that existed there.
Mohenjo-daro: Found in the Sindh province of present-day Pakistan, Mohenjo-daro was a major hub and one of the largest settlements of its time. The city’s civil engineering prowess is most evident in its iconic structures, such as the “Great Bath”—a large public bathing area—and a complex network of sophisticated drainage systems. These innovations highlight the residents’ expertise in urban design and their commitment to public hygiene.
Question 4.
What are the evidences which reveal the skill of the Indus people in town-planning?
Ans:
The carefully structured arrangement of Harappan settlements strongly suggests a sophisticated understanding of town-planning.
Their cities, notably Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, were distinguished by a grid system, where straight streets and narrow lanes intersected at almost perfect right angles, effectively dividing the urban space into distinct rectangular blocks. This methodical layout points to significant pre-planning and engineering expertise. Furthermore, the roads and streets were notably straight and sufficiently wide to handle anticipated traffic. The discovery of lamp posts at regular intervals hints at the presence of street lighting, and the rounded corners observed in some streets suggest an awareness of efficient traffic movement.
Individual houses were connected to street drains, which were often concealed by stone slabs or bricks. This focus on sanitation underscores a strong concern for public health. The consistent proportions of the standardized burnt bricks used in construction across various Harappan sites (typically a 1:2:4 ratio for thickness, width, and length) implies a central authority and a high degree of uniformity in building materials. Finally, the common division of major cities into an elevated “citadel,” likely serving as a precinct for the ruling class and public structures, and a lower town for the general population, indicates a level of social organization and deliberate functional zoning. The existence of substantial public buildings, such as the Great Bath and large granaries, further suggests centralized planning and resource management for community needs.
Question 5.
Mention the main evidences to suggest that the Indus Valley people paid great importance to sanitation and health.
Ans:
The strongest evidence for the Indus Valley people’s emphasis on sanitation and health lies in their meticulously planned urban centers featuring sophisticated drainage systems, including covered drains alongside streets and within houses, often with inspection pits for maintenance. Additionally, the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro suggests a focus on public hygiene and ritual bathing, while the presence of what some archaeologists interpret as public wells and bathing platforms further indicates attention to water management and cleanliness. The organized layout of cities with wide roads and grid patterns also facilitated waste management and airflow, contributing to a healthier living environment.
Question 6.
What are the two different types of buildings that were unearthed at the various Industries ?
Ans:
Excavations at Indus Valley Civilization sites have unearthed two primary types of buildings:
- Residential Buildings: These range from small, possibly single-room dwellings to larger houses with multiple rooms, courtyards, private wells, and bathrooms, indicating varying social strata.
- Public Structures: These include large constructions like the Great Bath (possibly for ritual bathing), granaries (for storing grains), assembly halls (for meetings or other communal purposes), and dockyards (at coastal sites like Lothal), suggesting organized civic and economic activities.
Question 7.
Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people had trade relations with other countries.
Ans:
Several key pieces of evidence indicate that the Harappan civilization was actively involved in trade with foreign regions. Mesopotamian cuneiform texts dating to approximately 2350 BC refer to a trading partner called “Meluha,” which scholars widely believe to be the Indus Valley. This connection is further solidified by the discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamian urban centers such as Ur, and conversely, Mesopotamian items found at Harappan sites.
The existence of a maritime trade route is supported by references to “Dilmun” (modern Bahrain) and “Makan” (the Makran coast) as intermediate stops. The Harappans’ own maritime skills are evidenced by images of ships on their artifacts and the impressive Lothal dockyard. The use of uniform weights and measures across the civilization suggests a highly organized and standardized trading system.
Question 8.
Describe the famous sculpture in metal which was found among the ruins of the city of Mohenjo-daro.
Ans:
Mohenjo-daro’s ruins yielded the renowned “Dancing Girl,” a small (roughly 10.5 cm) bronze statue. This nude figure of a young woman stands confidently with one hand on her hip and the other, covered in bangles, hanging freely. She also sports a necklace and a bun hairstyle. Crafted around 2500 BCE using the lost-wax method, this iconic piece highlights the Harappans’ advanced metalworking and artistic flair. Beyond a mere depiction, it hints at the existence of dance and leisure in their culture. This significant Harappan artifact is now a prized possession of the National Museum in New Delhi.
Question 9.
Give one evidence to show that the Harappan people excelled in the art of sculpture in the following:
(a) In metal (b) In stone (c) In terracotta
Ans:
Based on the provided information, here are three key examples of Harappan sculpture, each showcasing a different medium and artistic style:
(a) Metal: This piece is renowned for its use of the lost-wax casting method, a sophisticated technique for its time. The sculpture captures a sense of life and motion in its portrayal of a female figure, highlighting the artisans’ skill in creating dynamic forms.
(b) Stone: The “Priest-King” bust, discovered in Mohenjo-daro, exemplifies the Harappan civilization’s expertise in stone carving. This steatite sculpture is notable for its intricate details, such as the carefully rendered beard, the decorative robe, and the serene expression, which together convey a sense of dignity and authority.
(c) Terracotta: The terracotta “Mother Goddess” figurines, found at many Harappan sites, demonstrate the civilization’s proficiency in working with clay. These molded and fired clay figures are often richly detailed with ornaments and elaborate headdresses. These sculptures likely held significant religious or ritualistic importance, possibly related to fertility, and offer insight into the beliefs of the Harappan people.
Question 10.
What evidence has been found to suggest that the Harappan people were familiar with the art of writing?
Ans:
The strongest indication that the Harappan people knew how to write lies in the thousands of inscribed seals that have been found. These small, usually square items, often made of steatite, are marked with:
- Distinct Symbols: Around 400 unique picture-like and abstract signs appear on them, and their repeated patterns suggest an organized way of communicating, not just random marks.
- Short Texts: Many seals have brief lines of these symbols, which experts think could be words, names, titles, or even details about religion or administration.
- Consistent Style: The fact that some symbols and their use are quite similar across different Harappan cities suggests a widely understood system for writing or keeping records.
Question 11.
Mention three different kinds of Seals discovered at the various sites of the Harappan Valley Civilization.
Ans:
Harappan sites have yielded three notable seal types:
- Square Steatite Seals with Animal Motifs: The most frequent, these depict a single animal (such as a unicorn, bull, elephant, rhino, or tiger) accompanied by a brief inscription in the unread Indus script.
- The Pashupati Seal: A unique steatite seal showcasing a seated figure, possibly with three faces, surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo) and two deer beneath the seat, often interpreted as an early deity form.
- Cylindrical Seals: Less common but present, these resemble Mesopotamian seals, suggesting possible trade or cultural links between the two civilizations.
Question 12.
Mention any two probable causes for the decline and disappearance of the Harappan Civilization.
Ans:
Two likely reasons for the Harappan Civilization’s decline are:
- Environmental Changes: Gradual shifts in climate, such as prolonged droughts or changes in river courses (like the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river), could have severely impacted agriculture and water resources, undermining the civilization’s economic and social foundations.
- Invasions or Internal Conflicts: While direct archaeological evidence is debated, some theories suggest external invasions or internal strife and societal breakdown could have contributed to the abandonment of major urban centers and the eventual disappearance of the Harappan culture as it was known.
Question 13.
Mention any two features to suggest that the Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amenities than those of Mesopotamia.
Ans:
The Harappan civilization exhibited a higher standard of civic amenities than Mesopotamia in at least two notable ways:
- Sophisticated Town Planning: Harappan cities displayed a remarkable grid layout with well-organized streets intersecting at right angles, dividing the city into distinct blocks. This level of urban planning, including standardized brick sizes and orientations, was far more systematic than the often haphazard growth seen in Mesopotamian cities.
- Advanced Drainage Systems: The Harappans possessed an exceptionally well-developed and comprehensive drainage system. Every house was connected to covered drains that lined the streets, eventually leading to larger sewers outside the city. This intricate network for wastewater management and sanitation was significantly more advanced and widespread than the drainage solutions found in Mesopotamia at the time.
Question 14.
What is Civilization?
Ans:
Civilization is a complex human society characterized by urban development, social stratification, organized government, specialized labor, monumental architecture, and systems of record-keeping or advanced communication. 1 It often implies a level of cultural and technological advancement beyond that of simpler, less organized societies.
Question 15.
State the probable period of the existence of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Ans:
The Indus Valley Civilization is believed to have flourished from approximately 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. Its history is commonly divided into three distinct eras: the Early Harappan Period (around 3300-2600 BCE), the Mature Harappan Period (from about 2600-1900 BCE), which marked the civilization’s height with advanced urban centers, and the Late Harappan Period (c. 1900-1300 BCE), which was characterized by a period of decline and transformation.
Question 16.
Mention three main occupations of the Indus Valley people.
Ans:
The Indus Valley people primarily sustained themselves through agriculture, cultivating vital crops on the fertile Indus plains. They also engaged in widespread trade, both within their settlements and with distant regions like Mesopotamia, dealing in various goods. Furthermore, a significant portion of the population were skilled craft producers, specializing in pottery, bead making from precious stones, metalworking in copper and bronze, and the intricate carving of seals.
Question 17.
Mention any two features of the Harappan script.
Ans:
Two notable features of the Harappan script are:
- Pictographic Nature: The script primarily utilizes signs that resemble objects, animals, or human forms, suggesting it was largely based on visual representations rather than an alphabet of abstract sounds.
- Direction of Writing: It was typically written from right to left, as evidenced by the overlapping of characters in some inscriptions where the scribe ran out of space at the left edge.
Question 18.
Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people worshiped:
(a) The Mother Goddess, (b) The Shiva Pashupati, and (c) The trees and animals.
Ans:
Evidence suggests Harappan worship through:
(a) Mother Goddess Figurines: Abundant terracotta female figures with elaborate adornments, some showing a plant emerging from the womb, likely represent a fertility or earth mother deity.
(b) Proto-Shiva Seal: A significant seal portrays a three-faced male in a yogic pose, surrounded by animals, widely interpreted as an early form of Shiva or Pashupati, lord of animals.
(c) Reverence for Nature: Numerous depictions of animals (bulls, elephants, tigers, rhinos) and associations of figures with trees, especially the pipal, point to animal and tree veneration. Composite animal depictions suggest mythical beliefs.
Question 19.
What is the evidence to suggest that the Harappan people worshipped trees and animals?
Ans:
Harappan sites offer compelling evidence for tree and animal worship through several key findings. Seals frequently feature various animals, prominently including the “unicorn,” suggesting their religious importance as potential totems or deity associations. The iconic Pashupati Seal, depicting a figure surrounded by animals, further underscores the significance of animals in their belief system, possibly linked to a proto-Shiva concept. Tree depictions, especially of the Peepal tree on seals and terracotta, sometimes with figures of worship, indicate tree veneration or belief in tree spirits. Numerous animal figurines in terracotta, representing creatures like bulls and birds, likely served ritualistic purposes or represented worshipped entities.
Question 20.
What is meant by the word ‘Mesopotamia’?
Ans:
The word ‘Mesopotamia’ is a Greek term meaning “the land between the rivers.” It specifically refers to the ancient region situated in Southwest Asia, nestled between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This fertile area is largely located in modern-day Iraq, but also encompasses parts of Syria, Turkey, and Kuwait.
Question 21.
What evidences are found for us to know about the following:
(a) Food of the Indus Valley people.
(b) Dress and Ornaments worn by the people.
Ans:
(a) Food: The Harappan diet centered around grains like wheat and barley, evidenced by charred remains and tandoor-like ovens. They also consumed various pulses (lentils, peas), and fruits such as melons, dates, and pomegranates. Meat and dairy were part of their diet, with bones indicating consumption of beef, mutton, pork, fish, and fowl, alongside evidence of domesticated cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats for milk. Pottery residue analysis further confirms meat and dairy intake.
(b) Dress and Ornaments: Harappan clothing involved woven cotton, suggested by textile fragments and bead impressions. Figurines and depictions hint at unstitched garments like dhotis and shawls for men, and skirts for women, although needles and buttons suggest some stitched items. Both genders adorned themselves with numerous ornaments crafted from precious metals (gold, silver), gemstones, shell, bone, and terracotta, including necklaces, armlets, bangles, and earrings. Burial sites and figurines directly confirm the use of these diverse ornaments, along with elaborate hairstyles and headdresses.
Question 22.
Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?
Ans:
The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the first of its cities to be extensively excavated, starting in the 1920s. This archaeological site in present-day Pakistan revealed the existence of this previously unknown, sophisticated urban culture. Following the archaeological naming convention of using the “type site” (the first major discovery location), the civilization became widely recognized as the Harappan Civilization, a name that also avoids being geographically restrictive since the civilization’s reach extended beyond the Indus Valley itself. This term gained particular prominence after India’s independence.
Structured Questions
Question 1.
Harappan Civilization was a highly developed urban civilization. Discuss the significant features of this Civilization with reference to:
(a) The Town Planning. (b) The Drainage System. (c) The Dwelling Houses.
Ans:
The Harappan Civilization was a strikingly advanced urban culture characterized by:
(a) Meticulous Town Planning: Harappan cities displayed precise grid layouts with right-angled streets, divided into elevated citadels and lower towns, often separately walled. Standardized bricks and building orientation suggest central planning and advanced engineering.
(b) Sophisticated Drainage System: Their unparalleled drainage network connected every house to covered street drains with inspection points, showcasing a strong focus on public health unmatched by contemporary civilizations.
(c) Standardized Dwelling Houses: Generally uniform single or double-storied brick houses with central courtyards, private bathrooms, and often wells, indicate a degree of social equality and emphasis on domestic comfort and hygiene within their urban society.
Question 2.
The Harappan Civilization reveals the architectural skill of the people; Substantiate this statement by a brief mention of the following:
(a) The Great Bath.
(b) The Assembly Hall, the Citadel and other Public Buildings.
Ans:
The Harappan Civilization’s architectural skill is evident in its meticulously planned urban centers and sophisticated structures.
(a) The Great Bath: Located in Mohenjo-daro, this large, rectangular tank with brick steps, side rooms, and a well-engineered drainage system showcases advanced hydraulic engineering and precise brickwork. Its purpose, likely ritualistic bathing, highlights the civilization’s attention to communal spaces and water management.
(b) The Assembly Hall, the Citadel and other Public Buildings: The Citadel, a raised area in cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, housed significant public structures such as the Assembly Hall (a large pillared hall) and granaries. These buildings demonstrate careful planning, large-scale construction, and an understanding of structural stability and storage needs, indicating a well-organized society with skilled architects and engineers capable of creating functional and enduring public spaces. The grid-like street layouts and covered drainage systems found throughout Harappan cities further attest to their advanced urban planning and architectural expertise.
Question PQ.
Describe the social life of the Harappan people with reference to:
(a) Their Diet. (b) Their Dress. (c) Their Ornaments. (d) Sports and Games.
Ans:
Based on archaeological evidence, the social life of the Harappan civilization was highly organized and culturally rich. Their daily existence was characterized by a diverse diet, a distinct sense of fashion and personal adornment, and a variety of recreational activities.
a) Diet and Agriculture: The Harappans sustained themselves with a varied diet that included both plant and animal-based foods. Their agricultural staples were wheat and barley, supplemented by pulses like lentils, peas, and chickpeas. They also cultivated fruits such as dates and grapes. The presence of clay ovens suggests that they were baking bread. While agriculture was the foundation of their society, they were not exclusively vegetarian. They domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs for meat. The finding of fish bones at inland sites indicates that they also consumed seafood from nearby rivers and coastal areas.
b) Attire and Weaving: Harappan clothing was generally simple and functional, made from woven cotton and wool. The discovery of numerous spindles points to spinning and weaving being common household tasks. Both men and women wore straightforward, two-piece garments. Men typically wore a lower cloth similar to a dhoti and draped a shawl over their shoulders. Women’s clothing consisted of a short skirt or a loincloth-like lower garment, also paired with a shawl. The presence of needles at archaeological sites suggests that some form of stitched clothing, like tunics, may also have been worn.
c) Personal Adornment and Jewelry: Jewelry was a significant aspect of Harappan culture, worn by both genders across all social classes.The wealthy wore intricate pieces made from precious metals like gold and silver, often set with valuable stones such as carnelian and agate. Common jewelry included necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and rings. Women were also known to wear bangles, anklets, and elaborate girdles. Less affluent members of society wore simpler ornaments made from materials like terracotta, shell, bone, and copper.
d) Recreation and Amusements: The Harappans engaged in a variety of leisure activities, both indoors and outdoors. Indoor games included dicing, as evidenced by the discovery of numerous dice, and board games that may have been early forms of chess. Children’s toys included miniature clay animals, rattles, and whistles. For outdoor recreation, activities such as hunting, fishing, and bull-fighting were popular. The famous “Dancing Girl” figurine from Mohenjo-daro suggests that music and dancing were also a key part of their cultural and social life.
Question 3.
What do you know about the trade and commercial activities of the Harappan people ?
Ans:
The Harappan civilization thrived on extensive trade, both within their territory and with distant lands. Internally, a structured system facilitated the exchange of farm products like wheat, barley, and cotton, alongside crafted items such as pottery, beads, and metalwork, between cities and rural areas. Standardized weights, measures, and seals likely governed these transactions.
Externally, Harappan trade networks stretched far, reaching Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and possibly even Egypt. Evidence includes Harappan artifacts in these regions and Mesopotamian texts referencing “Meluhha,” believed to be the Indus Valley. Key Harappan exports likely comprised cotton textiles, agricultural goods, timber, and precious stones like carnelian and lapis lazuli. In return, they imported metals (copper, tin, gold, silver), gemstones, and other raw materials. The dockyard at Lothal indicates a significant maritime trade presence.
Question 4.
With reference to the art and craft of the Harappan people, explain their achievements in the following fields :
(a) The Art of Sculpture. (b) The Art of Carving.
Ans:
(a) The Art of Sculpture:
The Harappan people demonstrated considerable skill in sculpture, though the number of surviving pieces is relatively small. Their sculptural achievements, often realistic, were crafted from various materials:
- Stone: Notable stone sculptures include the “Priest-King” bust from Mohenjo-daro, carved from steatite, showcasing a dignified figure with a patterned shawl and a serene expression. Another significant piece is the red sandstone male torso from Harappa, remarkable for its understanding of human anatomy despite lacking head and limbs. These stone figures suggest a sophisticated level of carving and polishing techniques.
- Bronze: The famous “Dancing Girl” from Mohenjo-daro, a small but dynamic figure, exemplifies their mastery in metal casting and portrayal of human form. Bronze figures of animals like buffaloes and bulls also reveal their skill in capturing realistic details.
- Terracotta: Terracotta figurines, often handmade and less refined than stone or bronze sculptures, were abundant. These depicted human figures, including the “Mother Goddess” figurines suggesting fertility cults, and various animals. While simpler, they provide valuable insights into daily life and popular beliefs.
(b) The Art of Carving:
The Harappan people excelled in the art of carving, particularly evident in their seals and other smaller objects:
- Seals: Thousands of seals, primarily made of steatite and occasionally other materials like agate and copper, are a hallmark of Harappan carving. These small, typically square objects feature meticulously carved intaglio designs of animals (like the unicorn, bull, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, goat, buffalo), human figures (such as the “Pashupati” seal), and composite creatures, often accompanied by the undeciphered Harappan script. The detailed and realistic depiction of animals in various moods is particularly noteworthy, suggesting keen observation and skillful execution using tools like burins. These seals likely served commercial, administrative, or even amuletic purposes.
- Other Carved Objects: Besides seals, the Harappans also carved beads from various stones like carnelian, steatite, and lapis lazuli, often with intricate designs. Inscriptions on copper tablets, featuring carefully cut animal or human figures and script, also demonstrate their carving abilities on metal. The precision in crafting weights from stones further highlights their skill in carving for functional purposes.
Question 5.
India is well-known for her deep-rooted tradition in arts and crafts. Substantiate this statement by a brief mention of the following:
(a) The Harappan Pottery, (b) Harappan art of Spinning. (c) Harappan Metal-craft
Ans:
India’s rich artistic and craft heritage is evident even in its earliest known urban civilization, the Harappan culture.
(a) Harappan Pottery: Their pottery, often wheel-made and adorned with distinctive painted motifs (geometric patterns, plant and animal designs), showcases skilled craftsmanship and artistic expression in everyday objects.
(b) Harappan art of Spinning: The discovery of spindle whorls and depictions of woven fabrics indicates a well-developed art of spinning and weaving, highlighting their textile technology and potential for intricate designs.
(c) Harappan Metal-craft: Harappans were skilled metalworkers, producing tools, weapons, ornaments, and even figurines in copper, bronze, and gold, demonstrating advanced metallurgical knowledge and artistic finesse in shaping these materials.
Question 6.
The Seals may be considered as the most valuable finds of the Harappan Civilization. Concentrate on the picture given below and answer the following questions.
(a) What does this Seal depict?
(b) How important are the Seals as sources of information about the Harappan Culture?
Ans:
(a) Seal Depiction: This particular Harappan seal frequently portrays a central male figure, seated in a posture that is either meditative or commanding. He is often shown with a distinct horned headpiece and is surrounded by a collection of wild animals, including a rhinoceros, an elephant, a tiger, and a buffalo. The seal also features an inscription of the Indus script, which remains a mystery to historians.
(b) Importance of Seals: Harappan seals serve as invaluable artifacts for understanding the Indus Valley Civilization. They are crucial for several reasons:
- Religious Insights: The figures and animals etched on the seals provide clues about the religious beliefs and deities of the Harappan people, such as the potential worship of a central male figure and the reverence for certain animals.
- Artistic and Craftsmanship Value: The detailed and intricate carvings on the seals demonstrate the advanced artistic skills and sophisticated craftsmanship of the Harappan civilization.
- Economic and Administrative Functions: The consistent design and widespread use of these seals suggest they may have had a role in trade and commerce, potentially for authenticating goods or for administrative record-keeping.
- Linguistic Evidence: The presence of the undeciphered Harappan script on the seals represents the most significant remaining challenge in understanding their language and written communication.
- Zoological Information: The animal figures depicted on the seals offer a glimpse into the fauna that inhabited the region during that period.
Question PQ.
Write a note on the religious beliefs and practices of the Harappan people with reference to:
(a) Worship of the Mother Goddess.
(b) Worship of Shiva Pashupati.
(c) Worship of Trees and Animals.
Ans:
- The religious practices of the Harappan civilization, while not fully understood due to the unreadable nature of their script, offer fascinating insights gleaned from archaeological discoveries.
- Mother Goddess Veneration: The discovery of numerous clay figurines, typically decorated, points to a strong focus on a female deity. This figure is often believed to symbolize fertility and the power of creation, indicating a deep respect for the life-sustaining elements of the natural world.
- Proto-Shiva Worship: A notable seal shows a male figure seated and surrounded by animals, which some scholars interpret as an early form of Shiva, or Pashupati, the “Lord of Animals.” This suggests the potential worship of a dominant male deity, possibly connected to religious traditions that developed later.
- Reverence for Nature: The Harappan people seemingly held certain plants and animals in high esteem. Seals frequently display figures of animals such as bulls and elephants, and even mythical beings, suggesting their possible sacred significance. Images of trees, particularly the peepal, also appear, hinting at a form of tree worship, where they may have been considered dwelling places for spirits.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
Short Answer Questions:
Question 1.
What is meant by the term, ‘Civilisation’ ?
Ans:
A civilization can be defined as a sophisticated human society marked by a series of developed characteristics. Key among these are the creation of established cities and a well-organized urban landscape, along with a distinct social structure featuring various classes. Another defining trait is a complex system of government that maintains order and authority. A civilization is also recognized by its specialized division of labor, where people focus on specific tasks rather than generalized survival activities. This specialization is vital for undertaking large projects, such as building extensive public infrastructure. Furthermore, a system of writing is an essential element, enabling the society to store knowledge, document history, and codify laws, which in turn promotes social progress and cultural advancement.
