The Harappan Civilization

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The chapter then shifts focus to Earth’s position within the solar system, emphasizing the planet’s unique characteristics—like its ideal distance from the Sun and the presence of liquid water and an atmosphere—that make it habitable.

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Exercises

Question 1.
Mention any two sources to reconstruct the Harappan Civilization.
Ans:

Gaining an understanding of the Harappan civilization is largely dependent on two primary methods of investigation. First and foremost, a detailed study of archaeological sites through excavation is crucial. These digs reveal the structure of their ancient cities, including their well-organized streets, homes, public buildings like the Great Bath, and sophisticated water management systems. By carefully examining the different layers of the earth and the objects found within them, scholars can piece together the civilization’s history, from its beginning and golden age to its eventual decline. The layout of their cities, in particular, offers important clues about their societal organization, urban planning, and technological skills.

Secondly, the various artifacts recovered from these sites provide a vital look into the lives of the Harappan people. These items range from pottery and tools made of stone and metal to distinctive seals with an undeciphered script and images of animals. Also found are intricate pieces of jewelry and everyday items like children’s toys. Every single object tells a story about the daily routines, craftsmanship, religious beliefs, trade networks, and artistic talent of the civilization. For example, the many seals, despite their script still being a mystery, suggest that they had some form of administrative or religious system in place. The fact that similar artifacts are found in different locations also points to a consistent culture and possibly a unified system of governance.

Question 2.

Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?

Ans:

The primary reason the Indus Valley Civilization is overwhelmingly referred to as the Harappan Civilization is that Harappa was the initial major site to be systematically excavated, beginning in the 1920s.

In archaeological practice, it’s customary to name a civilization after its “type site”—the first significant location where its distinctive features are uncovered and thoroughly investigated. In this case, the ancient remains of Harappa, located in modern-day Pakistan, were the first to bring the reality of this advanced urban culture to scholarly attention.

Although the civilization thrived across the expansive Indus River Valley, and many early finds were situated there, later archaeological investigations revealed its considerable geographical reach extending beyond this initial area. Consequently, to employ a more inclusive and accurate label that wasn’t limited by its initial geographical association, and in recognition of the foundational discoveries at Harappa, the designation Harappan Civilization gained prominence and became the scientifically preferred term, especially within archaeological circles and notably in the naming conventions adopted by the Archaeological Survey of India following India’s independence in 1947.

Question 3.

Mention any two important centres of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Ans:

The Indus Valley Civilization stands as one of the world’s earliest urban societies, distinguished by its complex city layouts and remarkable engineering feats. The civilization’s two most famous cities offer a window into this sophisticated culture:

Harappa: This significant city, located in the Punjab region of modern Pakistan, was a cornerstone of civilization. It is well-known for its methodical organization, which included massive granaries for food storage and structures built with standardized, uniformly sized bricks. These features underscore the advanced urban planning and the structured society that existed there.

Mohenjo-daro: Found in the Sindh province of present-day Pakistan, Mohenjo-daro was a major hub and one of the largest settlements of its time. The city’s civil engineering prowess is most evident in its iconic structures, such as the “Great Bath”—a large public bathing area—and a complex network of sophisticated drainage systems. These innovations highlight the residents’ expertise in urban design and their commitment to public hygiene.

Question 4.

What are the evidences which reveal the skill of the Indus people in town-planning?

Ans:

The carefully structured arrangement of Harappan settlements strongly suggests a sophisticated understanding of town-planning. 

Their cities, notably Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, were distinguished by a grid system, where straight streets and narrow lanes intersected at almost perfect right angles, effectively dividing the urban space into distinct rectangular blocks. This methodical layout points to significant pre-planning and engineering expertise. Furthermore, the roads and streets were notably straight and sufficiently wide to handle anticipated traffic. The discovery of lamp posts at regular intervals hints at the presence of street lighting, and the rounded corners observed in some streets suggest an awareness of efficient traffic movement.

Individual houses were connected to street drains, which were often concealed by stone slabs or bricks. This focus on sanitation underscores a strong concern for public health. The consistent proportions of the standardized burnt bricks used in construction across various Harappan sites (typically a 1:2:4 ratio for thickness, width, and length) implies a central authority and a high degree of uniformity in building materials. Finally, the common division of major cities into an elevated “citadel,” likely serving as a precinct for the ruling class and public structures, and a lower town for the general population, indicates a level of social organization and deliberate functional zoning. The existence of substantial public buildings, such as the Great Bath and large granaries, further suggests centralized planning and resource management for community needs.

Question 5.

Mention the main evidences to suggest that the Indus Valley people paid great importance to sanitation and health.

Ans:

The strongest evidence for the Indus Valley people’s emphasis on sanitation and health lies in their meticulously planned urban centers featuring sophisticated drainage systems, including covered drains alongside streets and within houses, often with inspection pits for maintenance. Additionally, the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro suggests a focus on public hygiene and ritual bathing, while the presence of what some archaeologists interpret as public wells and bathing platforms further indicates attention to water management and cleanliness. The organized layout of cities with wide roads and grid patterns also facilitated waste management and airflow, contributing to a healthier living environment. 

Question 6.

What are the two different types of buildings that were unearthed at the various Industries ?

Ans:

Excavations at Indus Valley Civilization sites have unearthed two primary types of buildings:

1. Residential Buildings: These range from small, possibly single-room dwellings to larger houses with multiple rooms, courtyards, private wells, and bathrooms, indicating varying social strata.
2. Public Structures: These include large constructions like the Great Bath (possibly for ritual bathing), granaries (for storing grains), assembly halls (for meetings or other communal purposes), and dockyards (at coastal sites like Lothal), suggesting organized civic and economic activities.

Question 7.

Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people had trade relations with other countries.

Ans:

Several key pieces of evidence indicate that the Harappan civilization was actively involved in trade with foreign regions. Mesopotamian cuneiform texts dating to approximately 2350 BC refer to a trading partner called “Meluha,” which scholars widely believe to be the Indus Valley. This connection is further solidified by the discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamian urban centers such as Ur, and conversely, Mesopotamian items found at Harappan sites.

The existence of a maritime trade route is supported by references to “Dilmun” (modern Bahrain) and “Makan” (the Makran coast) as intermediate stops. The Harappans’ own maritime skills are evidenced by images of ships on their artifacts and the impressive Lothal dockyard. The use of uniform weights and measures across the civilization suggests a highly organized and standardized trading system.

Question 8.

Describe the famous sculpture in metal which was found among the ruins of the city of Mohenjo-daro.

Ans:

Mohenjo-daro’s ruins yielded the renowned “Dancing Girl,” a small (roughly 10.5 cm) bronze statue. This nude figure of a young woman stands confidently with one hand on her hip and the other, covered in bangles, hanging freely. She also sports a necklace and a bun hairstyle. Crafted around 2500 BCE using the lost-wax method, this iconic piece highlights the Harappans’ advanced metalworking and artistic flair. Beyond a mere depiction, it hints at the existence of dance and leisure in their culture. This significant Harappan artifact is now a prized possession of the National Museum in New Delhi.

Question 9.

Give one evidence to show that the Harappan people excelled in the art of sculpture in the following:

(a) In metal (b) In stone (c) In terracotta

Ans:

Based on the provided information, here are three key examples of Harappan sculpture, each showcasing a different medium and artistic style:

(a) Metal: This piece is renowned for its use of the lost-wax casting method, a sophisticated technique for its time. The sculpture captures a sense of life and motion in its portrayal of a female figure, highlighting the artisans’ skill in creating dynamic forms.

(b) Stone: The “Priest-King” bust, discovered in Mohenjo-daro, exemplifies the Harappan civilization’s expertise in stone carving. This steatite sculpture is notable for its intricate details, such as the carefully rendered beard, the decorative robe, and the serene expression, which together convey a sense of dignity and authority.

(c) Terracotta: The terracotta “Mother Goddess” figurines, found at many Harappan sites, demonstrate the civilization’s proficiency in working with clay. These molded and fired clay figures are often richly detailed with ornaments and elaborate headdresses. These sculptures likely held significant religious or ritualistic importance, possibly related to fertility, and offer insight into the beliefs of the Harappan people.

Question 10.

What evidence has been found to suggest that the Harappan people were familiar with the art of writing?

Ans:

The strongest indication that the Harappan people knew how to write lies in the thousands of inscribed seals that have been found. These small, usually square items, often made of steatite, are marked with:

• Distinct Symbols: Around 400 unique picture-like and abstract signs appear on them, and their repeated patterns suggest an organized way of communicating, not just random marks.
• Short Texts: Many seals have brief lines of these symbols, which experts think could be words, names, titles, or even details about religion or administration.
• Consistent Style: The fact that some symbols and their use are quite similar across different Harappan cities suggests a widely understood system for writing or keeping records.

Question 11.

Mention three different kinds of Seals discovered at the various sites of the Harappan Valley Civilization.

Ans:

Harappan sites have yielded three notable seal types:

1. Square Steatite Seals with Animal Motifs: The most frequent, these depict a single animal (such as a unicorn, bull, elephant, rhino, or tiger) accompanied by a brief inscription in the unread Indus script.
   
2. The Pashupati Seal: A unique steatite seal showcasing a seated figure, possibly with three faces, surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo) and two deer beneath the seat, often interpreted as an early deity form.
   
3. Cylindrical Seals: Less common but present, these resemble Mesopotamian seals, suggesting possible trade or cultural links between the two civilizations.

Question 12.

Mention any two probable causes for the decline and disappearance of the Harappan Civilization.

Ans:

Two likely reasons for the Harappan Civilization’s decline are:

1. Environmental Changes: Gradual shifts in climate, such as prolonged droughts or changes in river courses (like the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river), could have severely impacted agriculture and water resources, undermining the civilization’s economic and social foundations.
   
2. Invasions or Internal Conflicts: While direct archaeological evidence is debated, some theories suggest external invasions or internal strife and societal breakdown could have contributed to the abandonment of major urban centers and the eventual disappearance of the Harappan culture as it was known.

Question 13.

Mention any two features to suggest that the Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amenities than those of Mesopotamia.

Ans:

The Harappan civilization exhibited a higher standard of civic amenities than Mesopotamia in at least two notable ways:

1. Sophisticated Town Planning: Harappan cities displayed a remarkable grid layout with well-organized streets intersecting at right angles, dividing the city into distinct blocks. This level of urban planning, including standardized brick sizes and orientations, was far more systematic than the often haphazard growth seen in Mesopotamian cities.
   
2. Advanced Drainage Systems: The Harappans possessed an exceptionally well-developed and comprehensive drainage system. Every house was connected to covered drains that lined the streets, eventually leading to larger sewers outside the city. This intricate network for wastewater management and sanitation was significantly more advanced and widespread than the drainage solutions found in Mesopotamia at the time.

Question 14.

What is Civilization?

Ans:

Civilization is a complex human society characterized by urban development, social stratification, organized government, specialized labor, monumental architecture, and systems of record-keeping or advanced communication. ¹ It often implies a level of cultural and technological advancement beyond that of simpler, less organized societies.

Question 15.

State the probable period of the existence of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Ans:

The Indus Valley Civilization is believed to have flourished from approximately 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. Its history is commonly divided into three distinct eras: the Early Harappan Period (around 3300-2600 BCE), the Mature Harappan Period (from about 2600-1900 BCE), which marked the civilization’s height with advanced urban centers, and the Late Harappan Period (c. 1900-1300 BCE), which was characterized by a period of decline and transformation.

Question 16.

Mention three main occupations of the Indus Valley people.

Ans:

The Indus Valley people primarily sustained themselves through agriculture, cultivating vital crops on the fertile Indus plains. They also engaged in widespread trade, both within their settlements and with distant regions like Mesopotamia, dealing in various goods. Furthermore, a significant portion of the population were skilled craft producers, specializing in pottery, bead making from precious stones, metalworking in copper and bronze, and the intricate carving of seals.

Question 17.

Mention any two features of the Harappan script.

Ans:

Two notable features of the Harappan script are:

1. Pictographic Nature: The script primarily utilizes signs that resemble objects, animals, or human forms, suggesting it was largely based on visual representations rather than an alphabet of abstract sounds.
   
2. Direction of Writing: It was typically written from right to left, as evidenced by the overlapping of characters in some inscriptions where the scribe ran out of space at the left edge.

Question 18.

Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people worshiped:

(a) The Mother Goddess, (b) The Shiva Pashupati, and (c) The trees and animals.

Ans:

Evidence suggests Harappan worship through:

(a) Mother Goddess Figurines: Abundant terracotta female figures with elaborate adornments, some showing a plant emerging from the womb, likely represent a fertility or earth mother deity.

(b) Proto-Shiva Seal: A significant seal portrays a three-faced male in a yogic pose, surrounded by animals, widely interpreted as an early form of Shiva or Pashupati, lord of animals.

(c) Reverence for Nature: Numerous depictions of animals (bulls, elephants, tigers, rhinos) and associations of figures with trees, especially the pipal, point to animal and tree veneration. Composite animal depictions suggest mythical beliefs.

Question 19.

What is the evidence to suggest that the Harappan people worshipped trees and animals?

Ans:

Harappan sites offer compelling evidence for tree and animal worship through several key findings. Seals frequently feature various animals, prominently including the “unicorn,” suggesting their religious importance as potential totems or deity associations. The iconic Pashupati Seal, depicting a figure surrounded by animals, further underscores the significance of animals in their belief system, possibly linked to a proto-Shiva concept. Tree depictions, especially of the Peepal tree on seals and terracotta, sometimes with figures of worship, indicate tree veneration or belief in tree spirits. Numerous animal figurines in terracotta, representing creatures like bulls and birds, likely served ritualistic purposes or represented worshipped entities. 

Question 20.

What is meant by the word ‘Mesopotamia’?

Ans:

The word ‘Mesopotamia’ is a Greek term meaning “the land between the rivers.” It specifically refers to the ancient region situated in Southwest Asia, nestled between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This fertile area is largely located in modern-day Iraq, but also encompasses parts of Syria, Turkey, and Kuwait.

Question 21.

What evidences are found for us to know about the following:

(a) Food of the Indus Valley people.

(b) Dress and Ornaments worn by the people.

Ans:

(a) Food: The Harappan diet centered around grains like wheat and barley, evidenced by charred remains and tandoor-like ovens. They also consumed various pulses (lentils, peas), and fruits such as melons, dates, and pomegranates. Meat and dairy were part of their diet, with bones indicating consumption of beef, mutton, pork, fish, and fowl, alongside evidence of domesticated cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats for milk. Pottery residue analysis further confirms meat and dairy intake.

(b) Dress and Ornaments: Harappan clothing involved woven cotton, suggested by textile fragments and bead impressions. Figurines and depictions hint at unstitched garments like dhotis and shawls for men, and skirts for women, although needles and buttons suggest some stitched items. Both genders adorned themselves with numerous ornaments crafted from precious metals (gold, silver), gemstones, shell, bone, and terracotta, including necklaces, armlets, bangles, and earrings. Burial sites and figurines directly confirm the use of these diverse ornaments, along with elaborate hairstyles and headdresses.

Question 22.

Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?

Ans:

The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the first of its cities to be extensively excavated, starting in the 1920s. This archaeological site in present-day Pakistan revealed the existence of this previously unknown, sophisticated urban culture. Following the archaeological naming convention of using the “type site” (the first major discovery location), the civilization became widely recognized as the Harappan Civilization, a name that also avoids being geographically restrictive since the civilization’s reach extended beyond the Indus Valley itself.  This term gained particular prominence after India’s independence.

Structured Questions

Question 1.
Harappan Civilization was a highly developed urban civilization. Discuss the significant features of this Civilization with reference to:
(a) The Town Planning. (b) The Drainage System. (c) The Dwelling Houses.
Ans:

The Harappan Civilization was a strikingly advanced urban culture characterized by:

(a) Meticulous Town Planning: Harappan cities displayed precise grid layouts with right-angled streets, divided into elevated citadels and lower towns, often separately walled. Standardized bricks and building orientation suggest central planning and advanced engineering.

(b) Sophisticated Drainage System: Their unparalleled drainage network connected every house to covered street drains with inspection points, showcasing a strong focus on public health unmatched by contemporary civilizations.

(c) Standardized Dwelling Houses: Generally uniform single or double-storied brick houses with central courtyards, private bathrooms, and often wells, indicate a degree of social equality and emphasis on domestic comfort and hygiene within their urban society.

Question 2.

The Harappan Civilization reveals the architectural skill of the people; Substantiate this statement by a brief mention of the following:

(a) The Great Bath.

(b) The Assembly Hall, the Citadel and other Public Buildings.

Ans:

The Harappan Civilization’s architectural skill is evident in its meticulously planned urban centers and sophisticated structures.

(a) The Great Bath: Located in Mohenjo-daro, this large, rectangular tank with brick steps, side rooms, and a well-engineered drainage system showcases advanced hydraulic engineering and precise brickwork. Its purpose, likely ritualistic bathing, highlights the civilization’s attention to communal spaces and water management.

(b) The Assembly Hall, the Citadel and other Public Buildings: The Citadel, a raised area in cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, housed significant public structures such as the Assembly Hall (a large pillared hall) and granaries. These buildings demonstrate careful planning, large-scale construction, and an understanding of structural stability and storage needs, indicating a well-organized society with skilled architects and engineers capable of creating functional and enduring public spaces. The grid-like street layouts and covered drainage systems found throughout Harappan cities further attest to their advanced urban planning and architectural expertise.

Question PQ.

Describe the social life of the Harappan people with reference to:

(a) Their Diet. (b) Their Dress. (c) Their Ornaments. (d) Sports and Games.

Ans:

Based on archaeological evidence, the social life of the Harappan civilization was highly organized and culturally rich. Their daily existence was characterized by a diverse diet, a distinct sense of fashion and personal adornment, and a variety of recreational activities.

a) Diet and Agriculture: The Harappans sustained themselves with a varied diet that included both plant and animal-based foods. Their agricultural staples were wheat and barley, supplemented by pulses like lentils, peas, and chickpeas. They also cultivated fruits such as dates and grapes. The presence of clay ovens suggests that they were baking bread. While agriculture was the foundation of their society, they were not exclusively vegetarian. They domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs for meat. The finding of fish bones at inland sites indicates that they also consumed seafood from nearby rivers and coastal areas.

b) Attire and Weaving: Harappan clothing was generally simple and functional, made from woven cotton and wool. The discovery of numerous spindles points to spinning and weaving being common household tasks. Both men and women wore straightforward, two-piece garments. Men typically wore a lower cloth similar to a dhoti and draped a shawl over their shoulders. Women’s clothing consisted of a short skirt or a loincloth-like lower garment, also paired with a shawl. The presence of needles at archaeological sites suggests that some form of stitched clothing, like tunics, may also have been worn.

c) Personal Adornment and Jewelry: Jewelry was a significant aspect of Harappan culture, worn by both genders across all social classes.The wealthy wore intricate pieces made from precious metals like gold and silver, often set with valuable stones such as carnelian and agate. Common jewelry included necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and rings. Women were also known to wear bangles, anklets, and elaborate girdles. Less affluent members of society wore simpler ornaments made from materials like terracotta, shell, bone, and copper.

d) Recreation and Amusements: The Harappans engaged in a variety of leisure activities, both indoors and outdoors. Indoor games included dicing, as evidenced by the discovery of numerous dice, and board games that may have been early forms of chess. Children’s toys included miniature clay animals, rattles, and whistles. For outdoor recreation, activities such as hunting, fishing, and bull-fighting were popular. The famous “Dancing Girl” figurine from Mohenjo-daro suggests that music and dancing were also a key part of their cultural and social life.

Question 3.

What do you know about the trade and commercial activities of the Harappan people ?

Ans:

The Harappan civilization thrived on extensive trade, both within their territory and with distant lands. Internally, a structured system facilitated the exchange of farm products like wheat, barley, and cotton, alongside crafted items such as pottery, beads, and metalwork, between cities and rural areas. Standardized weights, measures, and seals likely governed these transactions.

Externally, Harappan trade networks stretched far, reaching Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and possibly even Egypt. Evidence includes Harappan artifacts in these regions and Mesopotamian texts referencing “Meluhha,” believed to be the Indus Valley. Key Harappan exports likely comprised cotton textiles, agricultural goods, timber, and precious stones like carnelian and lapis lazuli. In return, they imported metals (copper, tin, gold, silver), gemstones, and other raw materials. The dockyard at Lothal indicates a significant maritime trade presence.

Question 4.

With reference to the art and craft of the Harappan people, explain their achievements in the following fields :

(a) The Art of Sculpture. (b) The Art of Carving.

Ans:

(a) The Art of Sculpture:

The Harappan people demonstrated considerable skill in sculpture, though the number of surviving pieces is relatively small. Their sculptural achievements, often realistic, were crafted from various materials:  

• Stone: Notable stone sculptures include the “Priest-King” bust from Mohenjo-daro, carved from steatite, showcasing a dignified figure with a patterned shawl and a serene expression. Another significant piece is the red sandstone male torso from Harappa, remarkable for its understanding of human anatomy despite lacking head and limbs. These stone figures suggest a sophisticated level of carving and polishing techniques.  
• Bronze: The famous “Dancing Girl” from Mohenjo-daro, a small but dynamic figure, exemplifies their mastery in metal casting and portrayal of human form. Bronze figures of animals like buffaloes and bulls also reveal their skill in capturing realistic details.  
• Terracotta: Terracotta figurines, often handmade and less refined than stone or bronze sculptures, were abundant. These depicted human figures, including the “Mother Goddess” figurines suggesting fertility cults, and various animals. While simpler, they provide valuable insights into daily life and popular beliefs.

(b) The Art of Carving:

The Harappan people excelled in the art of carving, particularly evident in their seals and other smaller objects:

• Seals: Thousands of seals, primarily made of steatite and occasionally other materials like agate and copper, are a hallmark of Harappan carving. These small, typically square objects feature meticulously carved intaglio designs of animals (like the unicorn, bull, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, goat, buffalo), human figures (such as the “Pashupati” seal), and composite creatures, often accompanied by the undeciphered Harappan script. The detailed and realistic depiction of animals in various moods is particularly noteworthy, suggesting keen observation and skillful execution using tools like burins. These seals likely served commercial, administrative, or even amuletic purposes.  
• Other Carved Objects: Besides seals, the Harappans also carved beads from various stones like carnelian, steatite, and lapis lazuli, often with intricate designs. Inscriptions on copper tablets, featuring carefully cut animal or human figures and script, also demonstrate their carving abilities on metal. The precision in crafting weights from stones further highlights their skill in carving for functional purposes.

Question 5.

India is well-known for her deep-rooted tradition in arts and crafts. Substantiate this statement by a brief mention of the following:

(a) The Harappan Pottery, (b) Harappan art of Spinning. (c) Harappan Metal-craft

Ans:

India’s rich artistic and craft heritage is evident even in its earliest known urban civilization, the Harappan culture.

(a) Harappan Pottery: Their pottery, often wheel-made and adorned with distinctive painted motifs (geometric patterns, plant and animal designs), showcases skilled craftsmanship and artistic expression in everyday objects.

(b) Harappan art of Spinning: The discovery of spindle whorls and depictions of woven fabrics indicates a well-developed art of spinning and weaving, highlighting their textile technology and potential for intricate designs.

(c) Harappan Metal-craft: Harappans were skilled metalworkers, producing tools, weapons, ornaments, and even figurines in copper, bronze, and gold, demonstrating advanced metallurgical knowledge and artistic finesse in shaping these materials.

Question 6.

The Seals may be considered as the most valuable finds of the Harappan Civilization. Concentrate on the picture given below and answer the following questions.

(a) What does this Seal depict?

(b) How important are the Seals as sources of information about the Harappan Culture?

Ans:

(a) Seal Depiction: This particular Harappan seal frequently portrays a central male figure, seated in a posture that is either meditative or commanding. He is often shown with a distinct horned headpiece and is surrounded by a collection of wild animals, including a rhinoceros, an elephant, a tiger, and a buffalo. The seal also features an inscription of the Indus script, which remains a mystery to historians.

(b) Importance of Seals: Harappan seals serve as invaluable artifacts for understanding the Indus Valley Civilization. They are crucial for several reasons:

• Religious Insights: The figures and animals etched on the seals provide clues about the religious beliefs and deities of the Harappan people, such as the potential worship of a central male figure and the reverence for certain animals.
• Artistic and Craftsmanship Value: The detailed and intricate carvings on the seals demonstrate the advanced artistic skills and sophisticated craftsmanship of the Harappan civilization.
• Economic and Administrative Functions: The consistent design and widespread use of these seals suggest they may have had a role in trade and commerce, potentially for authenticating goods or for administrative record-keeping.
• Linguistic Evidence: The presence of the undeciphered Harappan script on the seals represents the most significant remaining challenge in understanding their language and written communication.
• Zoological Information: The animal figures depicted on the seals offer a glimpse into the fauna that inhabited the region during that period.

Question PQ.

Write a note on the religious beliefs and practices of the Harappan people with reference to:

(a) Worship of the Mother Goddess.

(b) Worship of Shiva Pashupati.

(c) Worship of Trees and Animals.

Ans:

• The religious practices of the Harappan civilization, while not fully understood due to the unreadable nature of their script, offer fascinating insights gleaned from archaeological discoveries.
• Mother Goddess Veneration: The discovery of numerous clay figurines, typically decorated, points to a strong focus on a female deity. This figure is often believed to symbolize fertility and the power of creation, indicating a deep respect for the life-sustaining elements of the natural world.
• Proto-Shiva Worship: A notable seal shows a male figure seated and surrounded by animals, which some scholars interpret as an early form of Shiva, or Pashupati, the “Lord of Animals.” This suggests the potential worship of a dominant male deity, possibly connected to religious traditions that developed later.
• Reverence for Nature: The Harappan people seemingly held certain plants and animals in high esteem. Seals frequently display figures of animals such as bulls and elephants, and even mythical beings, suggesting their possible sacred significance. Images of trees, particularly the peepal, also appear, hinting at a form of tree worship, where they may have been considered dwelling places for spirits.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS

Short Answer Questions:

Question 1.
What is meant by the term, ‘Civilisation’ ?
Ans:

A civilization can be defined as a sophisticated human society marked by a series of developed characteristics. Key among these are the creation of established cities and a well-organized urban landscape, along with a distinct social structure featuring various classes. Another defining trait is a complex system of government that maintains order and authority. A civilization is also recognized by its specialized division of labor, where people focus on specific tasks rather than generalized survival activities. This specialization is vital for undertaking large projects, such as building extensive public infrastructure. Furthermore, a system of writing is an essential element, enabling the society to store knowledge, document history, and codify laws, which in turn promotes social progress and cultural advancement.

Question 2.

Mention any three features that led to the emergence of civilisation.

Ans:

The emergence of civilization was spurred by:

1. Surplus Food Production: Leading to specialization of labor beyond agriculture.
2. Social Stratification: Development of hierarchical social structures and organized governance.
3. Urban Centers: Growth of densely populated areas with complex infrastructure and public buildings.

Question 3.

What are known as Bronze Age Civilisations ?

Ans:

Bronze Age Civilizations were societies that thrived during the Bronze Age, a period defined by the extensive use of bronze—an alloy of copper and tin—for crafting tools, weapons, and other objects. These cultures shared several defining characteristics:

Technological Advancement

The most notable feature was their expertise in metallurgy. The adoption of bronze, which was superior to earlier stone or copper tools, led to more effective implements for farming and more lethal weapons for warfare. This technological leap fundamentally reshaped their societies.

 Social and Political Complexity

Many of these civilizations developed into complex societies marked by urbanization and the emergence of cities. They had stratified social structures, with specialized roles for artisans, soldiers, and priests, and saw the formation of early states or kingdoms with centralized authority.

Innovations and Networks

Beyond metalworking, these societies pioneered various other innovations. They developed advanced irrigation techniques for agriculture, established vast trade networks to acquire raw materials like copper and tin, and in some cases, created early writing systems. They also built impressive structures, indicating a high degree of social organization and engineering skill.

Question 4.

Name two important sources of information on the Harappan Civilisation.

Ans:

The Harappan Civilization’s story is primarily reconstructed through two distinct and crucial avenues:

Firstly, archaeological excavations of their ancient urban centers and settlements directly reveal their sophisticated city planning, architectural achievements (homes, grand structures like the Great Bath and granaries), and advanced infrastructure (drainage). Analyzing soil layers and unearthed objects allows researchers to establish a chronological understanding of their rise and fall.

Secondly, the variety of artifacts uncovered, including uniquely decorated pottery, tools, inscribed seals with animal figures, jewelry, and playthings, provide glimpses into their daily life, skills, beliefs, trade networks, and artistic expressions. The consistency of some artifacts across different locations hints at shared cultural norms or even centralized authority.

Question 5.

Why did ancient men start using bronze for making tools and weapons ?

Ans:

Ancient peoples adopted bronze for tools and weapons due to its superior qualities compared to earlier materials like stone and copper. Bronze, a copper alloy usually with tin, was significantly harder and more durable, leading to tools and weapons that were less prone to breakage and dulling. Its lower melting point and greater fluidity in molten form made it easier to cast into more complex and effective shapes. While harder than copper, bronze was still workable, allowing for precision in shaping and sharpening. Finally, bronze offered better resistance to corrosion than copper and iron in many conditions, extending the lifespan of these essential implements.

Question 6.

By whom was the city of Mohenjo-daro discovered ?

Ans:

The city of Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Question 7.

Who discovered the city of Harappa ?

Ans:

The city of Harappa was first extensively discovered by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921.  While there were earlier mentions and surveys of the site, Sahni’s excavations were the first to reveal the significance and extent of the Harappan civilization, leading to its formal recognition as a major ancient urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. 

Question 8.

Why is the Harappan Civilisation called so ?

Ans:

The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the first site of this civilization to be discovered and extensively excavated. This groundbreaking work took place in the 1920s, revealing the existence of a sophisticated urban culture previously unknown in the Indian subcontinent.  

Following the established practice in archaeology, the civilization is often named after its “type site”—the initial, significant location where its unique characteristics are identified. In this case, the ruins of Harappa, situated in present-day Pakistan, were the first to unveil the remarkable urban planning, advanced infrastructure, and distinctive artifacts of this Bronze Age civilization. While the civilization flourished across a wider region beyond the Indus Valley, the name “Harappan Civilization” stuck, particularly in the archaeological circles of the Indian subcontinent after its independence.

Question 9.

State two chief features of residential houses in Mohenjo-daro.

Ans:

Residential dwellings in Mohenjo-daro were notable for two key characteristics:

Firstly, they showcased a thoughtfully designed layout prioritizing privacy. Homes were generally structured around a central, open courtyard, which acted as a source of light and fresh air for the adjoining rooms. Rooms typically opened inwards towards this courtyard, and the main entry to the house was often from a smaller alleyway, rather than directly from a main thoroughfare. This design choice underscored a focus on domestic seclusion, limiting direct views into the home from public spaces and demonstrating an advanced understanding of urban living and personal space.

Secondly, the houses exhibited consistent building methods and a focus on sanitation. Construction primarily involved the use of uniformly sized baked bricks, indicating a level of planning and potentially some form of centralized control over construction materials. Importantly, individual bathrooms with connections to a sophisticated city-wide drainage system were a common feature. Most houses had their own bathing area, often with brick flooring and drains that linked to the larger, well-engineered urban sanitation network. This emphasis on hygiene within individual residences highlights the advanced urban planning and public health awareness prevalent in the Mohenjo-daro civilization.

Question 10.

What types of weights and measures did the Indus people use ?

Ans:

The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, possessed a remarkably advanced and standardized system of weights and measures, highlighting their sophisticated urban planning and extensive trade networks. Archaeological evidence strongly supports this uniformity:

Weights:

• Consistent Cubical Shape: Weights were predominantly crafted as precise cubes, often made from chert stone.
• Refined Decimal System: Current understanding points to a sophisticated decimal system that also incorporated doubling and halving (e.g., 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10…).
• Fundamental Unit: The base unit of weight is estimated to be around 13.7 grams, with many discovered weights being multiples of 16 times this base. Smaller fractional weights were also utilized.
• Exceptional Accuracy and Uniformity: A defining characteristic is the outstanding precision and consistency of these weights across various Harappan settlements, strongly suggesting centralized control or a deeply ingrained adherence to a specific metrological standard.
• Practical Applications: Smaller weights were likely used for measuring valuable items, while larger weights served for bulk goods like grains.

Measures:

• Finely Divided Linear Scales: Linear measuring tools have been unearthed, including an ivory ruler from Lothal with incredibly fine divisions of approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest recorded on any Bronze Age scale. A shell scale from Mohenjo-Daro showed divisions around 1.32 inches, further subdivided decimally.
• Standardized Building Blocks: The consistent dimensions of bricks used in Harappan city construction indicate a standardized length measurement system, with bricks often maintaining a uniform dimensional ratio (e.g., 1:2:4).
• Possible Measurement Units: Later Indian texts mention the “angula” (finger width) as a unit of length, hinting at its potential use in the Indus Valley. A “foot” of roughly 13.2 inches, common in western Asia, also appears to have been employed. Markings on a bronze rod suggest a “cubit” of about 20.7 inches.

Question 11.

Name one important public building of Indus Valley Civilisation and its importance.

Ans:

The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro stands as a significant public structure of the Indus Valley Civilization, with its importance stemming from several key aspects:

It holds the distinction of being the “earliest public water tank of the ancient world,” dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE. This remarkable feature underscores the advanced hydraulic engineering and meticulous urban planning prevalent in the Indus Valley Civilization, particularly in their sophisticated management of water resources.

 The architectural marvel of the structure itself is undeniable. Measuring approximately 12 meters in length, 7 meters in width, and with a depth of 2.4 meters, it showcases the Harappans’ sophisticated brickwork and advanced waterproofing techniques, employing gypsum plaster and bitumen to create a watertight basin. This demonstrates their mastery of construction and sanitation practices.

Finally, beyond its potential religious uses, the Great Bath may have also served as a crucial social gathering place for the community, further emphasizing its importance in the urban fabric of Mohenjo-daro.

Question 12.

Name the process by which sculpture in metal was done.

Ans:

The lost-wax process, also known as cire perdue, is a venerable and intricate method used for creating detailed metal sculptures. The technique allows artists and artisans to produce a precise metal copy from an initial wax model.

The Casting Steps

The process is a meticulous series of steps that converts a fragile wax form into a lasting metal artwork:

• Wax Model: This initial creation will serve as the exact blueprint for the final metallic piece.
• Mold Formation: The wax model is then encased in a sturdy, heat-proof material, such as ceramic or plaster, which hardens around it to create a protective outer mold.
• Wax Elimination: This crucial step, which gives the technique its name, leaves a perfect, hollow impression of the original wax model within the mold.
• Metal Casting: Molten metal, typically bronze, is poured into the now-empty cavity.
• Finishing Touches: After the metal has cooled and solidified, the outer mold is carefully broken off to expose the new metal sculpture. The final piece is then cleaned, refined, and polished.

Question 13.

What do you know about the Indus Script ?

Ans:

The Indus Script, the earliest writing in the Indian subcontinent used by the Indus Valley Civilization, remains undeciphered, significantly hindering our understanding of this ancient culture. 

The script is hypothesized to be logo-syllabic, combining word and syllable signs. Found mainly on seals but also on other materials, its function is unknown but likely involved ownership, trade, religious practices, and administration. The underlying language is also a mystery, with proposed links to various language families but no definitive proof. The absence of a bilingual key like the Rosetta Stone is a major obstacle to decipherment, and its connection to later Indian scripts remains uncertain.

Question 14.

Mention the types of dress worn by the Indus Valley people.

Ans:

The Indus Valley people, both men and women, typically wore two-piece garments primarily made from cotton. Evidence also suggests the use of wool, flax, and possibly even silk.

The lower garment for men resembled a dhoti, a cloth wrapped around the waist and often passed between the legs and tucked in at the back. Women are believed to have worn skirts, often knee-length. The upper body was covered with a shawl or cloak that was draped over the shoulder.  

Archaeological discoveries of needles and buttons indicate that the art of stitching was known, suggesting the possibility of some stitched clothing as well. Figurines and seals provide visual evidence of these basic draped garments. Some depictions, like the “Priest-King” statue, show a more elaborate robe worn over the left shoulder. Head coverings like turbans were also likely worn by men.

Question 15.

State two features of the trade in the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Ans:

The Indus Valley Civilization exhibited a well-organized and extensive trade network, characterized by the following two key features:  

1. Extensive Network, Both Internal and External: The Harappans engaged in significant trade activities that spanned vast distances. Internally, a network of trade routes connected the various cities and settlements within the Indus Valley region. This facilitated the exchange of raw materials, agricultural produce, and finished goods between urban centers and rural areas. Externally, the civilization had established trade links with distant regions, notably Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq and surrounding areas). Archaeological evidence such as Harappan seals found in Mesopotamian sites and Mesopotamian artifacts discovered in Harappan cities clearly indicates this long-distance exchange. Trade likely occurred via land and sea routes, facilitating the movement of goods like precious stones, metals, timber, and possibly textiles.  
2. Specialized Goods and Standardized Practices: The trade in the Indus Valley Civilization involved a variety of specialized goods, reflecting the diverse crafts and resources available within and beyond their territory. Furthermore, the Harappans employed standardized weights and measures, as evidenced by the numerous cubical weights found at various sites. This standardization likely facilitated fair and efficient transactions within their extensive trade network, suggesting a level of administrative control and organization over economic activities. The presence of uniform seals across different locations might also point towards a system for regulating or authenticating trade goods.

Question 16.

How do we say that the Harappan people had certain  religious beliefs ?

Ans:

We infer that the Harappan people held certain religious beliefs based on the interpretation of various archaeological finds, even though their script remains undeciphered and no monumental temples have been definitively identified. The key pieces of evidence that suggest religious beliefs include:

1. Seals depicting deities and mythical figures: Numerous seals feature engravings of what appear to be deities. Other seals show composite creatures and figures in what seem to be ritualistic poses, hinting at a complex belief system with potential deities or supernatural entities.
   
2. Terracotta figurines, particularly of a “Mother Goddess”: A large number of terracotta figurines, predominantly female, have been discovered. These are often interpreted as representations of a Mother Goddess, possibly associated with fertility and abundance. While some modern scholars debate this interpretation, the sheer number and recurring features of these figurines suggest they held some form of significant cultural, if not religious, meaning.
   
3. Animal worship and reverence for nature: Animals such as bulls, elephants, rhinoceroses, and tigers are frequently depicted on seals, sometimes in what appear to be processions or associated with symbolic imagery. Furthermore, depictions of trees, particularly the pipal tree, sometimes with deities or worshippers, indicate a form of tree worship or the belief that spirits resided in nature.
   
4. Possible symbols of fertility and ritual: Stone objects resembling the lingam (phallic symbol) and yoni (female generative organ) have been found, leading some archaeologists to suggest the worship of these symbols associated with fertility, a practice seen in later Indian religions. The Great Bath found at Mohenjo-daro is also speculated to have had ritual significance, possibly for purification or communal bathing ceremonies.
   
5. Fire altars: Structures identified as fire altars have been discovered at sites like Kalibangan and Lothal. These suggest the practice of fire worship or some form of ritual involving fire, which was also a significant aspect of later Vedic traditions.

Question 17.

How do we know that the Harappans believed in animal worship ?

Ans:

We know that the Harappans likely believed in animal worship due to several key pieces of archaeological evidence:

1. Frequent Depictions on Seals: Numerous Harappan seals feature detailed and prominent images of various animals. These include real animals like the bull (especially the “unicorn” bull or zebu), elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, goat, and fish. The sheer frequency and careful rendering of these creatures suggest they held significance beyond just being part of the natural environment.
2. The Pashupati Seal: The famous Pashupati seal depicts a seated figure surrounded by animals like a buffalo, elephant, tiger, and rhinoceros, with deer beneath the seat. This imagery strongly suggests a connection between a potentially divine figure and the animal world, with the figure often interpreted as a “Lord of Animals” or proto-Shiva.  
3. Terracotta Figurines of Animals: These include bulls, dogs, birds, monkeys, elephants, rhinoceroses, and more. While some might have been toys, the sheer quantity and the care taken in their creation suggest that animals held a significant place in their cultural and possibly religious life. Some scholars propose that certain animal figurines might have been used in rituals or held symbolic meaning.  
4. Animals in Narrative Scenes: Some seals and terracotta depictions show animals in what appear to be narrative or potentially mythological contexts, further hinting at their importance within the Harappan belief system. For example, seals depicting composite animals or animals associated with specific symbols could indicate religious or mythical associations.

Question 18.

Name any three animals worshiped by the Harappans.

Ans:

Judging by their consistent representation in Harappan artifacts, three animals that likely held substantial religious or symbolic meaning for the Indus Valley people are:

The Zebu Bull (often portrayed as a “Unicorn”): This robust, humped bull is the most prevalent animal motif on their seals, indicating a strong connection to their belief system, potentially embodying power or representing a deity.

The Elephant: Frequently depicted on seals and crafted as terracotta figures, the elephant’s imposing stature and strength likely rendered it a revered creature, possibly associated with significant figures or concepts within their spiritual understanding.

The Rhinoceros: Another recurring image on Harappan seals, the rhinoceros, with its distinctive form and formidable nature, likely possessed symbolic importance and was possibly integrated into their religious practices.

Question 19.

State any two causes that led to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.

Ans:

While the exact reasons for the decline of the Harappan Civilization are still debated among archaeologists and historians, two prominent causes are frequently cited:

1. Environmental Changes: A significant body of evidence suggests that alterations in the environment played a crucial role in the civilization’s decline. This includes potential shifts in river courses, particularly of the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra river system (often identified with the ancient Saraswati River). These shifts could have led to decreased water availability for agriculture, the lifeblood of the Harappan economy, and increased the risk of devastating floods in some areas while causing desertification in others. Increased aridity and climate change, possibly linked to a weakening of the monsoon patterns, could have also severely impacted agricultural productivity, leading to famine and the inability to sustain large urban populations.
   
2. Breakdown of Socio-Economic Systems: The highly organized nature of the Harappan Civilization, evident in its urban planning, standardized weights and measures, and extensive trade networks, suggests that a disruption to these systems could have contributed to its decline. This could have manifested in several ways: the decline of long-distance trade with key partners like Mesopotamia might have weakened their economy. Internal social or political instability could have led to a breakdown in the centralized authority necessary for maintaining the sophisticated infrastructure and societal order. Evidence of overexploitation of resources, such as deforestation for fuel and agriculture, might have also degraded the environment and contributed to the civilization’s vulnerability.

Question 20.

In what two respects is Harappan Civilisation our greatest heritage ?

Ans:

The Harappan Civilization represents an exceptionally valuable inheritance for us, primarily due to these two significant facets:

• Pioneering City Planning and Infrastructure: The Harappans exhibited an unprecedented level of sophistication in urban design and public works for their era. Their cities, distinguished by carefully structured grid layouts, consistent brick construction, advanced drainage systems with covered conduits linked to individual residences, and communal amenities like the Great Bath, demonstrate a remarkable understanding of organized urban living and infrastructure. This early model of systematic city planning and sanitation surpassed many contemporary societies and laid a crucial foundation for subsequent urban developments in the Indian subcontinent and beyond. Their emphasis on hygiene and structured living remains a powerful testament to their ingenuity and engineering capabilities.
• Early Technological Mastery and Craftsmanship: The Harappans displayed notable technological prowess and a high degree of skill in diverse crafts. They were among the first to implement standardized weights and measures, essential for trade and governance. Their proficiency in metallurgy, notably with copper and bronze, enabled them to produce tools, implements of war, and intricate artistic creations like the “Dancing Girl” through sophisticated methods such as lost-wax casting. refined level of artistry and innovation that profoundly influenced later cultures in the region. These early technological and artistic achievements form a critical component of the subcontinent’s tangible and cultural legacy.

Question 21.

Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people had trade relations with other countries.

Ans:

The Harappan civilization, which flourished in the Indus Valley from around 2600 to 1900 BCE, had extensive trade relations with various contemporary cultures. Several pieces of evidence suggest these connections:

1. Harappan Seals Found Abroad:

• Mesopotamia: Numerous Harappan seals, characterized by their unique script and animal motifs (like the unicorn bull), have been discovered in Mesopotamian cities such as Ur, Kish, and Tell Asmar. These seals likely belonged to Harappan merchants and were used to stamp goods, indicating their origin.
• Persian Gulf: Seals of Harappan origin and those influenced by Harappan designs have been found in the Persian Gulf region, particularly in Bahrain (ancient Dilmun), suggesting active trade networks.
• Egypt: While direct evidence is less abundant, some Harappan artifacts, including beads, have been found in Egyptian sites. Seals with Indus script-like symbols have also been noted, though the connection is still debated.

2. Foreign Goods Discovered in Harappan Sites:

• Mesopotamian Artifacts: Cylinder seals, etched carnelian beads of a type common in Mesopotamia, and other Mesopotamian-style artifacts have been unearthed in Harappan cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal.
• Raw Materials from Distant Lands: The Harappans imported raw materials from regions far beyond the Indus Valley. These include:
  • Lapis Lazuli: Primarily from Badakhshan in Afghanistan.
  • Turquoise: From Iran and possibly Central Asia.
  • Copper: From Oman, Rajasthan (Khetri), and possibly other parts of India.
  • Tin: From Afghanistan and Iran, crucial for making bronze.
  • Gold: From South India (Kolar), Afghanistan, and Iran.
  • Silver: Possibly from Afghanistan and Iran.
  • Jade: From Central Asia or the Himalayas.
  • Shells: Species found on the coasts of Oman and the Persian Gulf have been discovered in Harappan sites, indicating trade or access to these regions.
  • Timber: Cedarwood from the Himalayas and Kashmir.

3. Harappan Presence in Trading Outposts:

• Archaeological evidence suggests the establishment of Harappan trading colonies or outposts in regions like Shortughai in Afghanistan, likely to facilitate the acquisition of lapis lazuli.
• Sites like Sutkagan-Dor on the Makran coast are believed to have served as important anchorages and trading posts along maritime routes.

4. Dockyard at Lothal:

• The discovery of a sophisticated dockyard at the coastal city of Lothal in Gujarat provides strong evidence for maritime trade. This structure could accommodate ships and suggests the Harappans engaged in sea-based commerce.

5. References in Mesopotamian Texts:

• Mesopotamian cuneiform texts mention a land called “Meluhha,” which is widely believed to refer to the Indus Valley civilization. These texts describe the import of goods from Meluhha, including timber, carnelian, lapis lazuli, gold, and various other products.

6. Harappan Craftsmanship Found Abroad:

• Harappan-style beads, jewelry, and other crafted items have been found in Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, indicating the export of finished goods from the Indus Valley.

Question 22.

Describe the famous sculpture in metal which was found among the ruins of the city of. Mohenjo-daro.

Ans:

This small but significant artifact was created using the lost-wax casting method, showcasing the civilization’s mastery of metallurgy.

Artistic and Physical Characteristics

The statuette, standing about 10.5 cm tall, depicts a young woman with a lean physique, slender limbs, and a confident posture. Her right hand is placed on her hip, while her left arm rests casually against her leg. A notable feature is the heavy ornamentation on her left forearm, adorned with approximately 24-25 bangles, possibly made from bone or ivory. Her right arm has fewer bangles, and she wears a necklace with three pendants. Her hair is tied in a large bun at the back of her neck. The figure’s facial features—a broad nose, full lips, and large eyes—convey a spirited and lively expression.

 Historical and Cultural Significance

Its existence proved that the people of the time were skilled in bronze casting. The statue’s dynamic pose also suggests that art, dance, and entertainment were likely a part of their culture. After the 1947 partition, the artifact was moved to India and is now preserved at the National Museum in New Delhi.

Question 23.
Give one evidence to show that the Harappan people excelled in the art of sculpture in the following:

1. In metal
2.  In stone
3. In terracotta

Ans:

In Metal:

• The “Dancing Girl” bronze statuette discovered in Mohenjo-Daro showcases their remarkable skill in metal casting using the lost-wax technique. The fluid posture and intricate details, like the numerous bangles, demonstrate a high level of metallurgical and artistic expertise.

In Stone:

• The “Priest-King” figure, carved from steatite and found in Mohenjo-Daro, exemplifies their mastery in stone sculpture. The carefully detailed beard, the patterned robe with trefoil motifs, and the overall serene yet dignified expression indicate a sophisticated understanding of carving and form in stone.

In Terracotta:

• The numerous terracotta figurines of the “Mother Goddess” found across various Harappan sites highlight their skill in modeling clay. Despite their often simplistic forms, these figures show a consistent style and suggest the importance of this iconography, indicating a proficient and widespread tradition of terracotta art.

Question 24.

What evidence has been found to suggest that the Harappan people were familiar with the art of writing?

Ans:

The most significant evidence suggesting that the Harappan people were familiar with the art of writing is the discovery of numerous inscribed objects across various Harappan sites. These include:

• Seals: Thousands of small, typically square or rectangular seals made of steatite, but also other materials like agate, chert, copper, faience, and terracotta, have been found. These seals often feature animal motifs (like the famous “unicorn”), geometric designs, and, crucially, short inscriptions composed of a unique set of symbols known as the Indus script or Harappan script. 
• Pottery: Many fragments of pottery discovered at Harappan sites contain graffiti or inscribed marks. While some of these might be potters’ marks or symbols with other meanings, others appear to be consistent with the Indus script found on seals, suggesting a broader familiarity with the writing system.
• Tablets: Tablets made of terracotta, faience, and even copper have been unearthed with Indus script inscriptions. These tablets sometimes contain longer sequences of symbols than found on seals.
• Other Objects: Inscriptions have also been found on various other artifacts, including bronze tools and weapons, bone and ivory objects, and stoneware bangles, indicating that the use of writing was not limited to seals alone.

Question 25.

Mention any two features of the Harappan script.

Ans:

The writing system of the Harappan civilization displays several notable traits.

Initially, its core structure appears to integrate both visual and sound-based components. A considerable number of its symbols likely began as depictions of tangible items, such as tools, animals, or human shapes, serving as word-signs (logograms). However, the limited set of distinct signs, numbering roughly 400 to 600, suggests that some symbols probably also represented spoken sounds or grammatical features, indicating a mixed word-sound script rather than a purely image-based one.

This conclusion is drawn from evidence like the overlapping of letters when space ran out on a seal and the placement of longer lines on the left side of individual characters. Despite this dominant direction, some longer inscriptions also exhibit boustrophedon writing, where the reading direction reverses with each new line, alternating between right-to-left and left-to-right.

Question 26.

Mention three different kinds of Seals discovered of the various sites of the Harappan Valley Civilization.

Ans:

Across the diverse settlements of the Harappan Valley Civilization, archaeological excavations have unearthed a variety of seal types, each hinting at different aspects of their society and interactions. Three notable categories include:

1. Steatite Square Seals Featuring Animal Imagery and Script: Representing the most frequently encountered seal form, these artifacts are typically crafted from steatite, a soft stone, and present a square shape. A defining characteristic is the engraved depiction of an animal – such as a unicorn, bull, elephant, rhinoceros, or tiger – accompanied by brief inscriptions in the yet-to-deciphered Harappan script. These seals are largely interpreted as tools for trade, potentially serving as markers of authority or proof of possession on traded commodities within the bustling markets of ancient Pune and beyond.
   
2. Cylinder Seals: Appearing less frequently than their square counterparts, a limited number of cylinder seals, bearing resemblance to those prevalent in Mesopotamia, have been found within Harappan urban centers. Their discovery suggests possible connections and commercial exchange with the Mesopotamian civilization, hinting at journeys undertaken by Harappan merchants from bustling centers like Lothal across vast distances.
   
3. Terracotta Seals and Their Impressions: Seals fashioned from terracotta, along with their impressions (sealings), have also been brought to light. These more common materials might have served similar functions to the more prestigious steatite seals but could have been manufactured more easily and perhaps utilized for less official dealings or by a broader spectrum of the populace in settlements near present-day Maharashtra. Sealings, which are clay tags bearing the imprint of seals, offer tangible proof of how these devices were employed to secure goods during transportation, perhaps along ancient routes connecting.

Question 27.

Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people worshiped

(a) The Mother Goddess

(b) The Shiva Pashupati, and

(c) The trees and animals.

Ans:

Archaeological findings from the Harappan civilization offer glimpses into their religious beliefs, suggesting the veneration of several entities:

(a) The Maternal Divine:

• Abundant Clay Female Statuettes: Across numerous Harappan settlements, a significant quantity of fired clay female figures has been unearthed. While often simply formed, some exhibit adornments like necklaces and intricate head coverings. These are broadly interpreted by researchers as representations of a Mother Goddess, embodying concepts of procreation and the origin of life.
• Imagery on Seals: Certain seals portray female forms linked with plant life or in poses suggestive of fertility. A notable example is a Harappan seal depicting a supine female figure from whose womb a plant is shown to be sprouting.

(b) A Proto-Shiva Figure:

• The Renowned “Pashupati Seal”: Discovered within the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, this steatite seal features a seated male figure, potentially with three faces and adorned with horns, surrounded by creatures such as an elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, and two deer. The archaeologist Sir John Marshall proposed this figure as an early form of Shiva, connecting him to the epithet Pashupati, meaning “Lord of Animals,” a title associated with the later Hindu deity Shiva. The figure’s yogic posture also hints at the presence of early ascetic practices.
• Symbols of Creation: Stone artifacts resembling the lingam, the phallic emblem of Shiva, and circular objects that could represent the yoni, the female generative principle, have been found. These discoveries suggest the possible worship of symbols linked to Shiva and Shakti in subsequent Hindu traditions.

(c) Reverence for Flora and Fauna:

• Arboreal Depictions on Seals: Numerous seals illustrate trees, particularly the Peepal tree (Ficus religiosa), which continues to hold sacred status in India today. Some seals depict deities positioned within or near these trees, along with figures appearing to worship them, indicating a reverence for trees.
• Prevalent Animal Motifs on Seals: The frequent appearance of diverse animals on Harappan seals, including the humped bull, rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, and the mythical unicorn, implies their significance, potentially within a religious context. The “Pashupati” seal further supports the idea of animal veneration.
• Numerous Clay Animal Forms: A wide array of fired clay figurines depicting animals such as bulls, buffaloes, elephants, and rhinoceroses have been found, possibly serving as votive offerings or representations of deities.
• Mythical Animal Combinations: Certain seals showcase imaginative composite creatures, suggesting the presence of complex beliefs, possibly religious in nature, associated with the animal kingdom.

Question 28.

What is the evidence to suggest that the Harappan people worshiped trees and animals?

Ans:

Harappan reverence for nature, specifically trees and animals, is indicated by:

Trees: Frequent Peepal tree depictions on seals suggest veneration due to its lasting sacredness. Seals showing figures near or within Peepal trees, sometimes with worshipping individuals, imply sacred status and worship practices. Consistent tree imagery might represent totems or symbolize life and fertility.

Animals: Numerous and detailed animal carvings (Zebu bull, buffalo, elephant, etc.) on seals suggest religious importance as deities or sacred symbols. The “Master of Beasts” seal links a key figure with animals, highlighting their significance. Abundant clay animal figurines could be votive offerings or symbolic. Mythical composite animals on seals indicate complex beliefs. The frequent bull depiction suggests special reverence, possibly linked to strength and fertility.

Question 29.

Mention any two probable causes for the decline and disappearance of the Harappan Civilization.

Ans:

Here are two probable causes for the decline and disappearance of the Harappan Civilization:

1. Environmental Changes: This is a widely supported theory. Evidence suggests significant shifts in climate, including increased aridity and prolonged droughts. The drying up or changing course of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system (often identified with the ancient Saraswati river) would have severely impacted agriculture, which was the backbone of the Harappan economy. Reduced water availability could have led to crop failures, famine, and ultimately the displacement of populations from the major urban centers.
   
2. Decline in Trade and Internal Socio-Economic Factors: The sophisticated urban planning and standardized systems of the Harappans suggest a strong central authority and well-established trade networks. A decline in these trade relations, possibly with Mesopotamia, could have weakened their economy. Internally, factors such as social stratification becoming more rigid, a breakdown of the centralized administration, or the overexploitation of resources could have contributed to the civilization’s gradual decay and eventual collapse of the urban centers. Archaeological evidence shows a deterioration in urban planning and a decrease in the quality of crafts in the later stages, hinting at internal issues.

Question 30.

What is meant by the word ‘Mesopotamia’?

Ans:

Mesopotamia, which translates to “the land between the rivers” from the ancient Greek words mesos (middle) and potamos (river), is a historical region located in Southwest Asia. This area, which today includes most of Iraq and parts of Iran, Syria, Turkey, and Kuwait, is nestled between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

 The Cradle of Civilization

Mesopotamia is widely recognized as the “cradle of civilization” due to its role as the birthplace of numerous foundational human innovations. The fertile land and consistent water supply provided by the rivers allowed early communities to thrive. This environment fostered the development of groundbreaking advancements, including:

• The invention of writing 
• The transition to settled agriculture
• The invention of the wheel
• The establishment of the first known legal codes and governmental systems

The regular flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers enriched the soil, making it ideal for farming and enabling the rise of complex urban societies in this ancient region.

Question 31.

Mention any two features to suggest that the Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amentities than those of Mesopotamia.

Ans:

Here are two features suggesting that the Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amenities than those of Mesopotamia:

1. Advanced and Well-Planned Drainage System: The Harappan civilization possessed a remarkably sophisticated and comprehensive underground drainage system in their urban centers like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Every house was connected to street drains, which were covered with bricks or stone slabs and had inspection manholes for cleaning. This widespread and efficient system for wastewater and sewage disposal was far more advanced and systematically implemented than the drainage solutions found in contemporary Mesopotamian cities, which often relied on open drains and were more susceptible to flooding and disease.  
2. Standardized Urban Planning and Architecture: Harappan cities exhibited a high degree of town planning with a grid layout of streets intersecting at right angles, dividing the city into well-defined blocks. Buildings, including houses, were constructed using standardized baked bricks of uniform size. This suggests a centralized authority and meticulous planning in urban development. In contrast, Mesopotamian cities typically had a more organic and less standardized layout with irregularly shaped streets and buildings often constructed from sun-dried bricks, which were less durable and uniform. The emphasis on uniformity and planned infrastructure in Harappan cities indicates a greater concern for organized urban living and civic order.

Question 32.

What evidences are found for us to know about the following:

(a) Food of the Indus Valley people.

(b)Dress and Ornaments worn by the people.

Ans:

Based on archaeological findings, the Indus Valley people had a diverse diet, a developed textile industry for clothing, and a rich culture of creating various ornaments.

Food and Diet 

The people of the Indus Valley consumed a mixed diet of agricultural products and animal protein. They cultivated and ate staple grains like wheat, barley, and rice, along with pulses such as lentils and peas, as evidenced by charred remains found at excavation sites. Their diet also included meat from domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and goats, as well as fish. Tools like terracotta plows and sickles confirm their farming practices, while residue analysis of pottery indicates the use of animal fats and plant oils in their cooking.

Dress and Textiles 

The Harappan people were skilled in textile production, with evidence suggesting the widespread use of cotton. Finds of spindle whorls indicate they spun thread, and textile impressions on artifacts show they wove fabrics. Figurines depict men wearing a lower garment like a dhoti and a long robe, while women wore skirt-like clothes. The discovery of needles and buttons further confirms that they wore stitched garments.

Ornaments and Jewelry 

Both men and women in the Indus Valley wore a wide variety of ornaments, showcasing their sophisticated craftsmanship. They used a range of materials, from precious metals like gold and silver to semi-precious stones such as carnelian and lapis lazuli. Common jewelry items included necklaces, bracelets, bangles, rings, and head ornaments. The presence of bead-making factories at sites like Chanhudaro highlights their advanced skills in creating these intricate accessories.

Question 33.

Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?

Ans:

The Indus Valley Civilization came to be known as the Harappan Civilization due to a common practice in archaeology: naming a civilization after the first of its sites to be discovered and excavated.  

In this case, the city of Harappa, located in what is now Pakistan, was the first Indus Valley site to be extensively excavated in the 1920s by archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni. The findings at Harappa revealed a previously unknown, sophisticated urban culture.  

As more sites with similar characteristics were unearthed across the Indus Valley region, archaeologists recognized that Harappa represented a larger, distinct civilization. Following the established archaeological convention, the entire civilization came to be identified by the name of this initial discovery – hence, the Harappan Civilization.

II. Structured Questions:

With reference to the emergence of civilisation, answer the following questions:

Question 1.

What is meant by Civilisation ? What are the main traits which mark a civilisation ?

Ans:

Here are the main traits that typically mark a civilization:

1. Urban Centers (Cities): Civilizations are usually centered around large, densely populated settlements that serve as hubs for trade, administration, culture, and religion. These cities are more than just large villages; they are centers of specialized labor and complex social interactions.  
2. Organized Government and Administration: Civilizations develop formal structures of governance to maintain order, manage resources, enforce laws, and organize collective projects like infrastructure (irrigation, roads, public buildings). This often involves a hierarchy of officials and institutions.  
3. Social Stratification: Civilizations typically exhibit a hierarchical social structure with different classes or levels of status, power, and wealth. 
4. Complex Religion: Civilizations often develop organized religious systems with established beliefs, rituals, deities, and religious specialists (priests). Religion can play a significant role in explaining the world, providing moral codes, and unifying society.  
5. Record Keeping (Often Writing): The need to manage complex societies, trade, and administration often leads to the development of systems of record keeping, which frequently evolves into writing. Writing allows for the preservation of knowledge, history, laws, and literature.  
6. Monumental Architecture and Public Works: Civilizations often produce large-scale constructions such as temples, palaces, fortifications, irrigation systems, and roads. These projects demonstrate the civilization’s organizational capacity, technological skills, and social cohesion.  
7. Advancements in Technology and Innovation: Civilizations tend to develop new tools, techniques, and knowledge that improve their way of life, increase productivity, and facilitate trade and communication.

(b)

Explain briefly man’s progress from the stone age to that of civilisation

Ans:

Humanity’s journey from the Stone Age to civilization involved profound transformations:

Stone Age: Hunter-gatherer existence with crude stone tools (Paleolithic), adaptation and microliths (Mesolithic), then the agricultural revolution leading to settled villages and new technologies (Neolithic).

Transition to Civilization: Metalworking (Copper and Bronze Ages) brought stronger tools, specialization, and early urban centers. Iron Age saw widespread iron use, impacting society and empires.

Emergence of Civilization: Building on settled agriculture and metal technology, societies developed cities, organized governments, specialized labor, social classes, complex religions, record-keeping, and monumental architecture.

Question 2.

With reference to the sources of information about the Harappan Civilisation, describe the significance of each of the following: (a) Great Bath (b) Cemeteries (c) Script

Ans:

The Harappan Civilization is a fascinating ancient society, and its enduring remnants provide vital clues to understanding its people and culture. Three primary artifacts—the Great Bath, burial sites, and the enigmatic Harappan script—are especially important for this purpose.

The Great Bath 

The Great Bath, found at Mohenjo-Daro, is a testament to the Harappans’ advanced engineering and urban design. Its precise brickwork and use of bitumen for waterproofing demonstrate remarkable architectural skill. The structure’s large size and central location suggest a significant communal or ritualistic purpose, possibly for public ceremonies or religious purification. This implies a society with a high degree of civic order and a centralized authority capable of organizing large-scale projects, reflecting a well-defined social structure.

Burial Grounds

Analysis of Harappan burial sites gives us insights into their social structure and beliefs about life after death. Differences in grave goods, such as pottery, jewelry, and tools, indicate the presence of a social hierarchy with varying levels of wealth. For example, some burials were simple, while others were more elaborate. The inclusion of everyday objects in graves suggests that the Harappan people may have believed in a post-mortem existence where these items would still be useful.

The Enigmatic Script 

The Harappan script, found on numerous seals and artifacts, confirms that the civilization possessed a system of writing. This signifies a sophisticated level of communication and intellectual development necessary for managing a complex urban society and facilitating trade. Although the script remains undeciphered, it holds the potential to unlock a wealth of information about their language, governance, religious beliefs, and history if it can ever be decoded.