The Later Vedic Age saw the Aryans expand eastward into the Gangetic plains, establishing larger kingdoms facilitated by iron tools. Politically, tribal structures gave way to stronger, hereditary monarchies with elaborate royal rituals, while the Sabha and Samiti lost influence. Socially, the varna system became more rigid by birth, women’s status declined, and lineage gained importance. Economically, agriculture became primary with iron tools, rice, and wheat; crafts specialized, and trade used nishka as a medium. Religiously, early gods declined as Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva rose; rituals became complex, empowering Brahmins; and philosophical ideas in the Upanishads emerged.
EXERCISES
Question 1.
Mention any two of the religious texts which serve as sources to reconstruct the later Vedic Age.
Ans:
Two significant religious texts offering insights into the Later Vedic Age are:
The Samaveda, a compilation of melodies and chants largely drawn from the Rigveda but organized for liturgical use, illuminates the musical and ritualistic dimensions of later Vedic religious practices.
The Atharvaveda, distinct from the other Vedas, encompasses hymns, spells, charms, and incantations addressing diverse topics including healing, magic, and daily concerns. It reflects popular beliefs and practices evolving alongside mainstream Vedic religion, providing a broader view of the era’s religious context.
Question 2.
Mention any two archaeological sources to reconstruct the later Vedic Age.
Ans:
The Later Vedic Age (c. 1000-600 BCE) is largely understood through two major archaeological discoveries: the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture and the increasing use of iron artifacts.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture
Sites like Hastinapur and Atranjikhera in the Gangetic plains have yielded this distinctive pottery, providing concrete evidence of the culture and lifestyle described in Later Vedic texts. The discovery of PGW at these locations offers insights into their transition to an agricultural economy, the types of houses they built, and the tools they used, including early iron implements.
The Rise of Iron
The increasing presence of iron artifacts is another crucial archaeological find from this period. The discovery of iron tools and weapons confirms the technological advancements mentioned in the texts. Iron’s durability enabled the clearing of dense forests, leading to the expansion of agriculture in the Gangetic plain. This wider availability of iron also played a significant role in warfare and the development of new crafts. The discovery of iron within PGW cultural layers provides a direct link between the material culture and the technological shifts that defined the Later Vedic period.
Question 3.
Name any two newer regions occupied by the Aryans during the later Vedic period.
Ans:
Two important newer regions occupied by them were:
- Kuru-Panchala Region: This area, roughly corresponding to the upper Gangetic plains (modern-day Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh), became a central region of Aryan culture and political development during the Later Vedic Age. It is frequently mentioned in Later Vedic texts like the Brahmanas and Upanishads.
- Videha: Located further east, corresponding to modern-day northern Bihar, the kingdom of Videha, with its capital Mithila, also emerged as a significant Aryan center during this period. It is particularly known for its intellectual traditions and the philosophical discussions that took place in the court of King Janaka, as mentioned in the Upanishads.
Question 4.
Mention the important evidence to suggest that Southern India had also become familiar with Iron in the later Vedic Age.
Ans:
The presence of iron artifacts in Megalithic burial sites provides the strongest evidence that Southern India was familiar with iron during the Later Vedic Age. This conclusion is supported by several key factors.
Megalithic Burial Sites and Iron Implements
Archaeologists have discovered numerous Megalithic burial sites across South India, including locations in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. These sites, which feature structures like dolmens and cairns, consistently contain a variety of iron objects as grave goods. The artifacts include not only tools like axes and sickles but also weapons such as spearheads and swords, indicating that iron was a well-known and utilized material for both daily life and warfare.
Chronological and Cultural Evidence
The use of iron in these southern regions chronologically overlaps with the Later Vedic period in the north. Radiocarbon dating from sites like Hallur places the use of iron around the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE. Importantly, this iron technology developed within a distinct Megalithic cultural framework that was separate from the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture of North India. This suggests that the knowledge and adoption of iron technology in the south was independent and not a direct offshoot of northern cultural developments.
Question 5.
Mention any two of the Ashrams in the life of a man in Aryan society.
Ans:
Based on the information you provided, here are two of the four stages of life in ancient Hindu tradition:
1. Brahmacharya (Student Life)
This stage is dedicated to education and spiritual growth. During this time, a young man would live with a guru (teacher), studying the Vedas and other sacred texts.
2. Grihastha (Householder Life)
Following the completion of his studies, a man would enter the Grihastha stage. This period centers on family and community. The individual would marry, raise children, and engage in a profession to provide for his family and contribute to society. This stage is considered essential for the continuation of family and social traditions.
Question 6.
Mention the important subjects included in the courses of Gurukul education.
Ans:
The Gurukul education system offered a comprehensive learning experience that included several key subjects:
Central to the curriculum were the Vedas and Upanishads, the fundamental sacred texts of Hinduism, covering philosophy, spirituality, and rituals.Astronomy (Jyotisha) was included to understand celestial movements and their connection to timekeeping and rituals. Mathematics, encompassing arithmetic, geometry, and algebra, was essential for various calculations. Philosophy (Darshana) explored different schools of thought and the nature of reality. Ethics and Morality instilled values and principles for righteous living. Military Science (Dhanurveda), including archery and warfare, was taught, especially to those in the Kshatriya varna. Political Science and Governance (Arthashastra) was included for those destined for leadership roles. Arts and Crafts, encompassing music, dance, painting, and practical skills, were also part of the curriculum, as was Physical Education to ensure physical fitness and overall well-being.
Question 7.
Name the sacrifice that was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the later Vedic age.
Ans:
The sacrifice that was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the Later Vedic Age was the Rajasuya.
This was a significant public ritual aimed at establishing and legitimizing the king’s sovereignty and supreme authority. It involved a series of complex ceremonies and offerings over a period, culminating in the anointing of the king.
Question 8.
Name arty two newer crops produced by the later Vedic Aryans.
Ans:
During their eastward expansion into the fertile Gangetic plains in the Later Vedic Age, the Aryans became familiar with and started cultivating new crops that were not as prominent in the earlier Rig Vedic period. Two important newer crops were:
- Rice (Vrihi): The warm and humid climate of the Gangetic plains was well-suited for rice cultivation. It became a significant agricultural product and a staple food in this region during the Later Vedic period.
- Wheat (Godhuma): While some form of grain might have been known earlier, the cultivation of wheat became more widespread and significant in the new agricultural lands of the Gangetic plains during this era.
Question 9.
Name the important deities of the later Vedic period.
Ans:
The religious world of the Later Vedic period (roughly 1000-600 BCE) experienced a significant shift, with once-dominant gods becoming less important as new ones rose in stature. The key deities of this era included:
Prajapati: This deity rose to become the paramount creator god, taking a more central position than Indra, who was the chief deity in the Early Vedic period. Prajapati was seen as the lord of all creation.
Vishnu: Originally a less prominent deity in the Rigveda, Vishnu gained considerable significance in the Later Vedic period as the preserver and protector of the cosmos. This signaled the early stages of Vaishnavism.
Rudra (Shiva): Similar to Vishnu, Rudra, who appeared in the Rigveda as a potent deity associated with storms and healing, began to develop into the multifaceted god Shiva, linked with destruction and renewal. This marked the early growth of Shaivism.
Question 10.
Name the two Epics and their authors.
Ans:
- Ramayana: Usually credited to the sage Valmiki.
- Mahabharata: Usually credited to the sage Vyasa (also known as Veda Vyasa).
Question 11.
What is the message of the Bhagavad Gita?
Ans:
The Bhagavad Gita, a core Hindu text in the Mahabharata, presents a profound dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna before a great battle. 1 Its essence lies in: acting according to one’s duty (dharma) without attachment; the power of selfless action (karma yoga); achieving liberation through devotion to God (bhakti yoga); gaining wisdom (jnana yoga) about the self and reality; the soul’s immortality and rebirth; maintaining balance in all situations; revealing Krishna as the Supreme Being; and the importance of present moment focus. It’s a guide to a purposeful life through duty, selfless action, devotion, wisdom, and recognizing the eternal self and the Divine.
Question 12.
Mention briefly the rituals and sacrifices of the later Vedic Aryans?
Ans:
The rituals and sacrifices of the Later Vedic Aryans became significantly more elaborate and complex compared to the earlier period. Key features include:
- Elaborate Yajnas: Simple offerings evolved into grand, meticulously planned sacrifices (yajnas) that could last for days or even years.
- Increased Complexity: Rituals involved a precise sequence of actions, specific recitations of mantras, and the involvement of multiple specialized priests.
- Emphasis on Precision: Any deviation from the prescribed procedures was believed to render the sacrifice ineffective or even harmful.
- Animal Sacrifices: While offerings of grains and ghee continued, animal sacrifices became more prominent in certain major rituals.
- Royal Sacrifices: Kings performed grand public sacrifices like the Rajasuya (coronation), Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice to assert sovereignty), and Vajapeya (chariot race and social affirmation) to enhance their power and status.
- Symbolic Significance: Rituals acquired deeper symbolic meanings related to creation, cosmic order, and the relationship between humans and the divine.
- Focus on Efficacy: The primary aim of these elaborate rituals was to directly influence the gods and secure desired outcomes, such as prosperity, victory, and progeny.
Question 13.
Mention the reasons for the importance of the Brahmins (priestly class) in the later Vedic society.
Ans:
The Brahmin community held a position of considerable significance in Later Vedic society primarily because they served as:
- Specialists in complex rituals, considered essential for maintaining cosmic order and propitiating the gods.
- Intercessors linking humans and the divine, performing invocations and presenting offerings.
- Custodians of sacred Vedic texts and traditions, ensuring the continuity of cultural and religious heritage.
- Conductors of royal ceremonies, lending legitimacy to the king’s authority and securing prosperity.
- Occupying the highest rank in the solidified varna system, based on their perceived purity and knowledge.
- Leaders in intellectual and philosophical progress, particularly with the emergence of the Upanishads.
STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
Question 1.
What information do we gather from the later Vedic literature in respect of:
(a) Spread of Vedic Civilization to many New Regions.
(b) Role of Iron in later Vedic Economy.
Ans:
Later Vedic literature reveals the following:
(a) Spread of Vedic Civilization to New Regions:
These texts detail a significant eastward migration of the Aryans from the Sapta Sindhu region into the fertile Gangetic plains. They mention new geographical areas and kingdoms that arose with this expansion, notably the Kuru-Panchala region (modern Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh), a central hub, and further east, Kosala (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and Videha (northern Bihar). Hints of familiarity with more distant regions like the Andhras in South India and Vangas in eastern Bengal also appear. References to forest clearing suggest the process of making land suitable for agriculture and settlements during this eastward movement.
(b) Role of Iron in Later Vedic Economy:
The literature provides the earliest textual mentions of iron, referred to as ‘Shyama Ayas’ or ‘Krishna Ayas’ (“dark metal” or “black metal”), indicating its knowledge and use. While not exhaustively listed, the texts imply iron’s use in agriculture for tools like axes (parasu) and ploughshares, aiding in forest clearing and cultivation in the Gangetic plains. Its use in weapons like spearheads and arrowheads is also suggested, highlighting its role in warfare and establishing dominance. The increasing use of iron tools likely drove the economic transformation by enabling more efficient agriculture, leading to surplus and settled communities, and fostering craft specialization. The adoption of iron technology was gradual but eventually became a cornerstone of the Later Vedic economy and society due to its superior strength and availability.
Question 2.
Describe the social changes evident in the later Vedic period with reference to:|
(a) Position of Women (b) Caste System
Ans:
The Later Vedic period (circa 1000-600 BCE) brought about notable social transformations compared to the Rig Vedic era, particularly regarding the status of women and the development of the caste system.
(a) Position of Women:
The status of women generally declined during this time, with fewer freedoms than in the earlier period. Access to formal education became more limited for most, though some learned women (Brahmavadini) are mentioned. Women became increasingly subordinated to men, with a greater emphasis on their roles as wives and mothers within the household. Less favorable views of women emerged in some texts, sometimes portraying them as inferior. The practice of Swayamvara (self-choice of husband) seems to have become less common, reducing women’s agency in marriage. While widespread practices like child marriage and Sati were not yet present, the groundwork for stricter social restrictions on women was being laid.
(b) Caste System:
The varna system, initially more flexible and based on occupation in the Rig Vedic period, became more rigid and hierarchical in the Later Vedic Age, with birth increasingly determining social standing. A clear hierarchy of the four varnas – Brahmana (priests), Kshatriya (warriors and rulers), Vaishya (commoners), and Shudra (servants) – became more defined and strictly enforced. The Brahmin priestly class gained significant power and prestige due to the increasing complexity of rituals and their control over religious knowledge, placing them at the top. Social mobility between varnas became increasingly difficult, with individuals largely confined to their birth varna. More elaborate rules and regulations governing interactions between varnas emerged, emphasizing social distinctions. The Later Vedic period also saw the beginnings of sub-castes (jatis) based on specific occupations, further fragmenting society. The varna system was increasingly justified through religious texts and beliefs, solidifying its social and ideological foundation.
Question 3.
In the later Vedic Age there was a marked change in the economic life of the Aryans. In this context describe :
(a) The growing importance of Agriculture
(b) Variety of Crafts
(c) Changes in the field of Trade and Commerce
Ans:
The economic structure of the Later Vedic Age experienced a notable evolution:
(a) Increasing Significance of Agriculture: Farming rose to become a central economic pursuit, supported by the fertile Gangetic plains and the widespread use of iron implements. This enabled the cultivation of new crops like rice and wheat, fostering a more settled way of life and the potential for surplus yields.
(b) Diversification of Crafts: Specialization in various crafts flourished, with ironworking, carpentry, the characteristic Painted Grey Ware pottery, and weaving becoming more prominent. This diversification set the stage for the development of distinct occupational groups within the social fabric.
(c) Evolution of Trade and Commerce: Although the barter system remained the primary means of exchange, the nishka began to appear as a measure of value, though not yet a formal currency. Trade networks expanded alongside the eastward spread of settlements and the use of riverine transport, even though large-scale, organized commercial activities were still limited in scope.
Question 4.
Explain the religious beliefs and forms of worship during the later Vedic Age with reference to : Spiritual Philosophy of the Upanishads
Ans:
The Later Vedic Age saw a transformation in religious thought and practice. The early Vedic deities like Indra and Agni became less central, with new gods such as Prajapati, Vishnu, and Shiva gaining prominence. The focus of worship shifted from seeking worldly gains from nature deities to understanding core cosmic principles. Complex public sacrifices (yajnas) involving meticulous rituals and specialized priests became a defining characteristic. They highlighted knowledge (jnana) as the means to achieve liberation (moksha) from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) driven by karma. Practices such as meditation and introspection were encouraged to attain self-knowledge and realize this inherent oneness.
