The Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire, a cornerstone of ancient Indian history, is revealed through works like Kautilya’s Arthashastra (on statecraft) and Megasthenes’ Indika (a Greek ambassador’s account). Ashokan Edicts and Stupas provide crucial archaeological evidence, detailing Emperor Ashoka’s rule and his post-Kalinga War shift to Dhamma (peace and non-violence).

Chandragupta Maurya (322-297 BCE), advised by Kautilya, founded the empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty, expanding its control across much of the Indian subcontinent and establishing a centralized administration. He later embraced Jainism.

His son, Bindusara (297-273 BCE), maintained and further extended the empire. The most prominent ruler, Ashoka the Great (268-232 BCE), was profoundly changed by the Kalinga War, adopting Buddhism and promoting Dhamma—a moral code of peace, tolerance, and respect—through edicts and officers.

The empire featured a sophisticated centralized administration from Pataliputra, with provinces and a well-organized bureaucracy and military supported by taxes.

After Ashoka’s death, the empire declined due to weaker rulers, decentralization, internal strife, financial strain, and external threats, ultimately fragmenting with the assassination of the last ruler, Brihadratha, around 180 BCE.

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Name any two sources to reconstruct the Age of the Mauryas.
Ans:

Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Attributed to Chandragupta Maurya’s chief strategist, this seminal ancient Indian text functions as a comprehensive manual on governance. It provides deep understanding into the sophisticated administrative structure, economic regulations, judicial practices, and military organization of the Mauryan state, effectively outlining a detailed, idealized blueprint for the empire’s functioning.

Ashokan Edicts: These consist of more than thirty inscriptions precisely carved onto rocks and pillars dispersed throughout the Mauryan Empire. Authored by Emperor Ashoka, these edicts are direct royal declarations. They illuminate various facets of his reign, his unique moral doctrine known as Dhamma, his personal evolution after the Kalinga War, and directives concerning public ethics and welfare. As such, they serve as vital firsthand evidence portraying the political, religious, and social landscape of the Mauryan period, particularly during Ashoka’s rule.

Question 2.

Who was Kautilya (Chanakya)? Name the famous book written by him.

Ans:

Kautilya, recognized by the names Chanakya and Vishnugupta, stands as a monumental figure in ancient Indian history. He was a polymath, excelling as a philosopher, economist, jurist, and an astute strategist.His most celebrated literary contribution is the Arthashastra. This comprehensive work delves into statecraft, economics, military tactics, and governance, offering profound insights into the intricacies of administration, diplomatic relations, and political philosophy, reflecting Kautilya’s acute intellect and visionary approach to leadership.

Question 3.

What is a Stupa ? Name one stupa built by Ashoka ?

Ans:

A Stupa is a characteristic mound-like or hemispherical building that holds a central place in Buddhist architecture. It serves as either a commemorative monument or a sacred reliquary, frequently containing physical remnants of the Buddha or revered Buddhist saints, or objects connected to them. These structures are highly regarded as crucial sites for pilgrimage and meditation, symbolizing the Buddha’s enlightened state of mind and the spiritual journey to awakening. In terms of design, stupas typically feature a circular foundation, a significant solid dome (called the anda), a square enclosure (harmika) on top of the dome, and a central mast (yashti) capped with symbolic umbrellas (chatra).

A notable stupa initiated by Emperor Ashoka is the Great Stupa at Sanchi, situated in Madhya Pradesh, India. While it later saw extensive additions and the construction of elaborate gateways, its foundational core was originally commissioned by Ashoka during the 3rd century BCE.

Question 4.

Why did Seleucos Nicator invade India?

Ans:

Seleucus I Nicator invaded India with the primary aim of reasserting Hellenistic control over the eastern territories that had been part of Alexander the Great’s empire.

After Alexander’s sudden death, his vast empire fragmented, and his generals, known as the Diadochi, began carving out their own kingdoms. Seleucus, having established the Seleucid Empire in the west (encompassing much of the Middle East and parts of Central Asia), sought to consolidate and expand his dominion. The northwestern regions of India, including areas that are now part of Afghanistan and Pakistan, had been briefly under Macedonian rule during Alexander’s campaigns.

When Seleucus moved eastward in 305 BCE, he aimed to:

• Recover lost Greek conquests: He intended to reclaim the regions in northwestern India that Alexander had conquered, viewing them as rightfully part of the Hellenistic sphere of influence.
• Expand his nascent Seleucid Empire: Like other Diadochi, Seleucus was driven by territorial ambition to build a powerful empire and secure his legacy.
• Secure his eastern borders: The rise of a strong, unified Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya posed a significant challenge to Seleucus’s eastern flank. His invasion was also a strategic move to address this new power in the region.

Question 5.

What do you know about the extent of Chandragupta Maurya’s empire?

Ans:

Chandragupta Maurya’s empire stands as the inaugural major empire in Indian history, reaching a remarkable geographical scope by the conclusion of his rule around 297 BCE.

Geographically, the empire’s boundaries can be broadly delineated as follows:

To the Northwest, Chandragupta’s authority extended up to the Hindu Kush mountains. This included territories now part of Afghanistan, specifically areas like Kabul, Kandahar, and Herat, which were secured through a strategic treaty with Seleucus I Nicator, a successor of Alexander the Great. He also liberated the Punjab region from lingering Greek influence.

Towards the East, the empire’s reach stretched to Bengal, encompassing key regions such as Magadha, where his capital Pataliputra (located near present-day Patna) stood, and Orissa.

In the North, his dominion touched the foothills of the mighty Himalayas.

Question 6.

What change did the Kalinga War bring about in Ashoka’s life?

Ans:

Witnessing the immense carnage, suffering, and widespread devastation (with estimates suggesting over 100,000 fatalities and 150,000 forced displacements), Ashoka was overcome by profound remorse and deep regret.

This devastating emotional experience completely reshaped his perspective and subsequent governance:

• Embrace of Buddhism: He found solace and guidance in its core tenets of peace, non-violence (ahimsa), and compassion.
• Transition from Military Aggression to Moral Victory: Prior to the war, Ashoka was known for his aggressive expansionist policies, driven by military might (termed Bherighosha, or “sound of war drums”). This new approach prioritized moral and spiritual triumphs over territorial acquisition.
• Dissemination of Dhamma: Ashoka dedicated the remainder of his reign to propagating his ethical framework, known as Dhamma. This involved actively promoting principles such as tolerance, respect for elders, kindness towards all living beings, truthfulness, and civic responsibility. To facilitate this, he appointed specialized officials called Dhamma Mahamatras to spread these teachings throughout his empire and dispatched emissaries to other nations.
• Commitment to Public Well-being: His post-war rule saw a significant emphasis on initiatives aimed at public welfare. These included the construction of roads, the digging of wells, the establishment of rest houses, and the creation of hospitals for both people and animals, reflecting a benevolent and caring approach to governance.

Question 7.

Mention two advantages of the Pan-Indian character of the Mauryan empire.

Ans:

The pan-Indian character of the Mauryan Empire, meaning its vast geographical spread across the Indian subcontinent and its unified administration, offered several significant advantages:

1. Political Unity and End of Fragmentation: Before the Mauryas, the Indian subcontinent was largely fragmented into numerous smaller kingdoms and states, often engaged in internecine warfare. The establishment of a pan-Indian empire by Chandragupta Maurya effectively ended this political fragmentation, bringing a large portion of the subcontinent under a single, centralized authority. This led to greater stability and reduced regional conflicts, fostering a sense of broader unity.
   
2. Facilitation of Trade and Economic Prosperity: A vast, unified empire under a single administration led to standardized laws, currency, weights, and measures across diverse regions. This significantly eased and promoted trade and commerce, both internally and with foreign countries.

Question 8.

What does Megasthenes’ Indica tell us about the king’s life?

Ans:

While Megasthenes’ original Indica is no longer extant, having been pieced together from citations by subsequent Greek and Roman authors, it nonetheless offers a singular external perspective on the life of the Mauryan monarch, particularly Chandragupta Maurya. The text reveals:

Infrequent Public Engagements: The monarch’s public appearances were rare, reserved for specific events:

• Military Leadership: He personally led his armies into battle.
• Judicial Authority: He presided over court proceedings to hear cases and render verdicts.
• Religious Observances: He participated in sacred sacrificial rites.
• Elaborate Hunts: These expeditions were grand spectacles, often accompanied by a large entourage and a protective ring of armed female bodyguards.

Pervasive Surveillance and Espionage: A striking detail from Indica is the extensive network of spies, many of whom were women, utilized to safeguard the king and maintain his awareness of imperial affairs.

Judicial Accessibility: Despite his heavily guarded lifestyle, the king remained approachable for judicial matters, holding court to receive petitions and adjudicate cases from his subjects.

Esteem for Counselors: Megasthenes reportedly observed the king’s high regard for his chief minister, Kautilya (Chanakya), who, in contrast, maintained a relatively modest dwelling near the royal palace.

Rigorous Daily Routine: Some interpretations of Megasthenes’ work suggest a detailed schedule of the king’s daily responsibilities, indicating a highly disciplined routine where the monarch spent prolonged periods in court, diligently attending to state affairs with minimal personal indulgences.

Question 9.

What does Kautilya tell us about the duties of the king?

Ans:

Kautilya’s Arthashastra outlines ideal kingship as prioritizing the welfare and prosperity of subjects, asserting that a ruler’s happiness stems from their people’s well-being.

Key responsibilities include:

• Welfare of Subjects (Rajadharma): Paramount duty, encompassing security, justice, and economic stability, upholding moral standards.
• Maintenance of Law and Order: Establishing and enforcing an equitable legal system with proportionate punishments.
• Economic Management: Overseeing revenue, fair taxation, and promoting trade, agriculture, and industry, including infrastructure development.
• Military Preparedness: Maintaining a strong army for defense, skilled in strategy and alliances.
• Efficient Administration: Appointing competent and loyal officials, delegating while retaining authority.
• Seeking Counsel: Consulting experienced ministers for major decisions.
• Self-Discipline and Virtue: Maintaining self-control and avoiding vices like greed and arrogance.
• Constant Activity: Being perpetually diligent in duties, as continuous effort leads to prosperity.

Question 10.

What does Megasthenes tell us about the City administration?

Ans:

He describes a meticulously structured City Council, comprising 30 members, which oversaw the city’s affairs. This council was further subdivided into six distinct boards, each consisting of five members, and each entrusted with specific civic duties.

These boards managed a wide array of municipal responsibilities, including:

• Foreigner Welfare: This board was tasked with providing accommodation for visitors, monitoring their activities, offering assistance, and managing their assets in the event of their demise.
• Vital Statistics Registration: Responsible for recording births and deaths, this function served crucial purposes for census data collection and tax assessment.
• Trade and Commerce Regulation: This board regulated marketplaces, ensured adherence to standardized weights and measures, and supervised public sales to maintain fairness in commercial activities.
• Manufacturing Oversight: This body focused on ensuring the quality of manufactured goods and regulating their sale within the city.
• Sales Tax Collection: A key financial function, this board was responsible for levying a tax equivalent to one-tenth of the price on articles sold.
• Public Works Management: This board oversaw the maintenance of essential public infrastructure, such as roads and other communal facilities.

Question 11.

What is the importance of Ashoka’s inscriptions (Stone Edicts)?

Ans:

Ashoka’s rock and pillar inscriptions are supremely significant as direct historical records, offering immediate insights into his rule and policies. They are the primary source for his Dhamma, detailing his ethical framework of non-violence, tolerance, and social welfare, demonstrating his transformation after the Kalinga War. These edicts also reveal crucial details about Mauryan governance, including officials and public works, showing Ashoka’s moral approach to kingship. Their widespread geographical presence helps map the empire’s extent. They shed light on the era’s religious tolerance and societal welfare measures, and portray Ashoka’s unique royal ideology as a benevolent ruler. Furthermore, their linguistic diversity (Prakrit, Brahmi, Kharosthi, Greek, Aramaic) holds immense epigraphic and historical value.

Question 12.

Mention any two principles of Ashoka’s

Ans:

Two fundamental tenets of Ashoka’s Dhamma are:

• Non-violence and Peace (Ahimsa): Ashoka fervently promoted refraining from harm towards all living creatures, advocating for a peaceful coexistence among people and nations.
• Religious Tolerance: He strongly encouraged mutual respect and understanding across diverse religious beliefs, emphasizing the importance of honoring other faiths and fostering societal harmony.

( STRUCTURED QUESTIONS )

Question 1.
Describe the sources to reconstruct the Age of the Mauryan with reference to the following:
(a) Indica (b) Arthashastra
Ans:

To reconstruct the Mauryan Age, Megasthenes’ Indica and Kautilya’s Arthashastra are indispensable primary sources:

(a) Indica by Megasthenes: This account, though largely lost and known through later classical writers, offers a Greek ambassador’s direct observations of Mauryan India during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign. It provides foreign perspectives on the administration, social divisions, customs, and daily life of the period, giving us valuable insights into aspects like the capital city Pataliputra, the military organization, and the absence of slavery (as perceived by Megasthenes).

(b) Arthashastra by Kautilya: Attributed to Chandragupta Maurya’s chief minister, this Sanskrit treatise is a comprehensive guide to statecraft. It details the theoretical and practical aspects of governance, encompassing administrative structure, economic policies (taxation, trade), legal and judicial systems, military strategies, and principles of diplomacy. It serves as a blueprint for the functioning of the Mauryan state, revealing its centralized and efficient nature.

Question 2.

What is an Edict ? Mention the significance of Ashokan Edicts, with particular reference to the Rock Edict XIII and the Rummindei Pillar Inscription.

Ans:

An Edict is an official proclamation or command issued by a ruler or ruling entity, often carrying the weight of law.

The Ashokan Edicts are tremendously significant for piecing together Mauryan history because they are:

• The earliest, accurately dated, and best-ained written accounts from ancient India, providing direct understanding of Ashoka’s rule, governance, and the social and religious landscape of the time.
• Crucial primary sources for comprehending Ashoka’s unique ethical framework, Dhamma, which promoted peace, non-violence, and religious coexistence.
• Illustrative of the empire’s vast geographical extent and administrative structure, evidenced by their widespread distribution.

In particular:

Rock Edict XIII is profoundly important as it recounts the Kalinga War and its destructive aftermath. It vividly describes the widespread suffering and loss that deeply impacted Ashoka, leading to his profound remorse and subsequent embrace of Buddhism. This edict marks a crucial turning point in Ashoka’s reign and in Mauryan history, signifying his shift from military aggression to “conquest by Dhamma” (moral victory). It also references contemporary Hellenistic kings, providing valuable chronological and geopolitical insights.

The Rummindei Pillar Inscription, situated in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal), is vital because it records Ashoka’s pilgrimage to the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. The inscription explicitly states that, out of reverence for the Buddha’s birth there, Ashoka exempted the village of Lumbini from taxes and reduced its revenue contribution to one-eighth of its produce. This inscription stands as definitive archaeological confirmation of Lumbini as the Buddha’s birthplace and powerfully demonstrates Ashoka’s deep devotion to Buddhism through concrete economic benefits.

Question 3.

Chandragupta ruled over a vast empire. In this context explain:

(a) His main conquests.

(b)Details of his victory over Seleucos Nicator.

Ans:

Chandragupta Maurya’s reign was marked by significant territorial expansion. His primary conquests included overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty in Magadha to establish his capital at Pataliputra. He then reclaimed Northwestern India from Greek control after Alexander’s withdrawal. Further expansions brought Central and Western India under Mauryan rule, and he also extended his dominion southward into the Deccan Plateau, unifying most of the subcontinent except extreme southern regions and Kalinga.

His most notable foreign triumph was his decisive victory over Seleucus I Nicator (c. 305-303 BCE), one of Alexander’s generals. The ensuing treaty heavily favored Chandragupta, resulting in Seleucus ceding vast territories (including parts of modern Afghanistan and Balochistan) up to the Hindu Kush. A matrimonial alliance was likely formed, and Chandragupta provided Seleucus with 500 war elephants in exchange. This settlement also led to the dispatch of Megasthenes as an ambassador to the Mauryan court, whose work Indika became a crucial historical source.

Question 4.

The administration of a vast imperial state raised intricate problems which were wisely solved by Chadragupta Maurya and Ashoka. In this context explain briefly:

(a) Position of the king.

(b) Role of the Council of Ministers.

(c) Provincial Administration.

Ans:

The Centralized Mauryan Administrative System

The Mauryan Empire, led by figures like Chandragupta and Ashoka, established a sophisticated and centralized administrative system to govern its vast territory. This structure was characterized by a powerful monarch, a vital council of ministers, and a layered provincial administration that ensured the king’s authority reached every corner of the empire.

The Sovereign King

At the pinnacle of the Mauryan administration was the king, who held absolute authority.While he consulted with a council, all final decisions rested with him, establishing a strong, centralized monarchy. Texts like Kautilya’s Arthashastra emphasize the king’s critical role as the maintainer of social order and justice.

The Advisory Council of Ministers

Assisting the king was the Mantriparishad, or Council of Ministers. Composed of highly experienced officials, this body provided expert advice on a wide range of state matters, including finance, defense, and foreign policy. Though the king held the ultimate power, he depended heavily on the ministers’ specialized knowledge to ensure efficient governance. This advisory role was essential for the smooth operation of such a large empire.

Tiered Provincial and Local Governance

To manage its sprawling territory effectively, the empire was divided into several provinces. Each province was governed by a Viceroy, often a royal prince, who served as the king’s direct representative. These viceroys were responsible for tax collection, maintaining law and order, and commanding the provincial armies.

Below the provincial level, a network of officials managed districts and villages, ensuring the king’s rule was enforced at every tier of society. Officials like the Rajukas (who supervised public works and justice) and the Yuktas (who managed revenue collection) were integral to this system, connecting the central government to the most distant parts of the empire. This layered structure allowed for effective control and administration over a diverse and expansive population.

Question 5.

What do you know about:

(a) Mauryan District Administration.

(b) Mauryan City Administration.

Ans:

Mauryan District and City Administration

The Mauryan Empire had a sophisticated and highly organized administrative structure at the local level to effectively manage its vast territories. This system was characterized by a clear hierarchy of officials and specialized boards to handle various aspects of governance.

District Administration

The most senior official in a district was the Rajuka. This official had extensive responsibilities, acting as both a revenue collector and a judicial officer, comparable to a modern-day district magistrate. Their duties included overseeing state property, assessing taxes, and maintaining law and order.

Assisting the Rajukas were the Yuktas, who served as accountants, managing district records and assisting with tax collection. In some regions, a Pradesika acted as the district head, supervising all administrative activities and conducting regular inspections. At the most local level, the village officials like the Gopa (accountant) and Sthanika (tax collector) were responsible for day-to-day affairs.

City Administration

Mauryan cities, particularly the capital Pataliputra, were administered by a highly organized system led by the Nagaraka, or city superintendent. Nagaraka was in charge of crucial public services such as maintaining city walls, ensuring fire safety, managing sanitation, and overseeing roads.

1. Industrial Arts: Regulated artisans and maintained the quality of goods.
2. Care of Foreigners: Ensured the welfare and security of foreign visitors.
3. Registration of Births and Deaths: Maintained accurate demographic records for the city.
4. Trade and Commerce: Supervised markets and ensured fair trading practices.
5. Manufactured Articles: Checked the quality of all manufactured goods.
6. Collection of Taxes: Collected sales tax, which was typically one-tenth of the value of goods sold.

Question 6.

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not a narrow religious faith. Its broad objective was to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst people of the realm. In this context explain:

(a) Fundamental Principles of Dhamma.

(b) Means adopted for the propagation of Dhamma and the spread of Buddhism.

Ans:

Core Principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma

Dhamma was a moral and ethical framework promoted by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, aimed at fostering harmony and goodwill within his vast empire. It wasn’t a religion but a code of conduct emphasizing several key virtues:

• Non-violence (Ahimsa): A central tenet of Dhamma was the complete prohibition of harming living beings, extending to both humans and animals. Ashoka banned animal sacrifices and limited hunting, setting a personal example for his subjects.
• Tolerance and Respect: Ashoka advocated for mutual respect among people of different faiths. He believed that all sects deserved to be honored and that criticizing other religions was an act of self-condemnation.
• Charity and Generosity: Dhamma encouraged kindness toward all, particularly Brahmins, ascetics, friends, relatives, and those in need. 
• Respect for all people: Ashoka stressed the importance of respecting one’s parents, elders, and teachers. He also extended this respect to servants and employees, promoting a humane and just social order.

Methods of Propagation

• Edicts: The most famous method was the inscription of his edicts on stone pillars and rocks throughout his kingdom. These inscriptions, written in various languages and scripts, made his message accessible to a wide audience.
• Dhamma Mahamatras: He appointed special officers, known as Dhamma Mahamatras, to travel and oversee the implementation of Dhamma. Their duties included teaching the code, ensuring fair treatment of all people, and providing assistance to the poor and elderly.
• Dharma Yatras (Pilgrimages): Ashoka replaced royal hunts with Dharma Yatras—tours to sacred Buddhist sites. This demonstrated his personal commitment to the principles he was promoting and brought him closer to the people.
• Missionaries: He sent diplomatic and religious missions to various parts of the world, including Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and the Hellenistic kingdoms. These missions carried the message of Dhamma and helped to spread Buddhism internationally

Question 7.

Identify the picture given below and answer the following questions

(a) When and by whom was the Original Stupa built ?

(b) Which Dynasty enlarged it ?

(c) Mention two important features of the Stupa.

(d) What events are depicted on the panels of the Gateway?

Ans:

(a) Initial Construction: The foundation of the Great Stupa at Sanchi was laid in the 3rd century BCE under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Dynasty.

(b) Later Dynasties: The original stupa was expanded, encased in stone, and its famous gateways (toranas) were added primarily by the Shunga Dynasty (2nd-1st centuries BCE), with further enhancements by the Satavahana Dynasty.

(c) Two Features of the Stupa:

• The Anda and Vedika: It is encircled by a stone railing known as the vedika, which separates the sacred space from the secular world and provides a path for circumambulation.
• The Harmika and Chhatravali: Atop the anda is the harmika, a square platform that represents the abode of the gods. From its center rises a mast, the yasti, which holds a series of umbrellas, or chhatras, symbolizing royalty and the Three Jewels of Buddhism (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha).

(d) Narratives on the Gateways: The intricate carvings on the four gateways, or toranas, illustrate various narratives:

• Life of the Buddha: Key events from the Buddha’s life are depicted aniconically, meaning he is represented by symbols like the Bodhi tree (enlightenment), a wheel (his first sermon), or footprints.
• Buddhist Legends: The panels also show scenes from various Buddhist legends and historical events related to the spread of Buddhism.
• Daily Life: The carvings also offer valuable insights into the social and cultural life of the time, including details of clothing, transport, and festivals.

Question 8.

It is only with Ashoka that we can properly begin the history of the art and architecture of ancient India. In this context explain briefly:

(a) Arts and Crafts that flourished during Ashoka’s reign.

(b) A few features of the Ashokan Pillars.

Ans:

During Ashoka’s reign, the foundation of ancient Indian art and architecture truly began to flourish, marked by distinct developments:

(a) Arts and Crafts: 

• Stone Masonry and Sculpture: There was a remarkable leap in working with stone, moving from earlier wooden structures to durable stone constructions and intricate carvings. This included monumental sculptures, often depicting animals, and the creation of highly polished pillars.
• Terracotta Figures: While not as grand as stone, terracotta art continued to be produced, offering insights into common life and religious practices.
• Polishing Techniques: A unique and highly sophisticated polishing technique was developed, giving a lustrous, mirror-like finish to stone surfaces, most notably seen on the Ashokan Pillars. This technique remains a marvel.

(b) Features of Ashokan Pillars: The Ashokan Pillars are iconic examples of Mauryan art and engineering, characterized by:

• Monolithic Structure: Each pillar was carved from a single piece of sandstone, often quarried from Mathura or Chunar, and transported hundreds of miles, showcasing remarkable engineering prowess.
• Highly Polished Surface: They possessed an extraordinary “Mauryan polish” that gave them a gleaming, almost metallic luster, which has endured for centuries.
• Bell-shaped Capital: The shaft of the pillar was typically surmounted by a bell-shaped (inverted lotus) capital, often adorned with floral or other decorative motifs.
• Animal Capital: Above the bell capital sat a finely sculpted animal figure (or a group of animals) – such as lions, elephants, or bulls – often standing on an abacus decorated with wheels or other animals in relief. The most famous is the four-lion capital from Sarnath, now India’s national emblem.
• Inscriptions (Edicts): Many pillars carried Ashoka’s edicts inscribed on their shafts, serving as a means of royal communication and moral guidance.

Question 9.

Ashoka was a promising warrior, but soon after the Kalinga War, he turned into a practicing moralist. In this context explain:

(a) Fundamental Principles of Dhamma.

(b) True Nature of Dhamma.

Ans:

Ashoka, profoundly transformed by the devastating Kalinga War, adopted a philosophy of ethical leadership known as Dhamma.

(a) Foundational Principles of Dhamma:

Ashoka’s Dhamma served as a universal moral framework aimed at promoting well-being, harmony, and ethical conduct across his empire. Its core principles, clearly articulated in his edicts, included:

• Ahimsa (Non-violence): This fundamental tenet championed the avoidance of harm to any living creature (human or animal), actively discouraging warfare, and fostering an environment of peace.
• Tolerance and Respect for All Sects: It underscored the importance of mutual understanding and regard among diverse religious and philosophical groups, advocating appreciation for others’ beliefs rather than condemnation.
• Generosity and Liberality: It encouraged acts of kindness, charity, and giving towards Brahmins, ascetics, friends, relatives, servants, and the less fortunate.
• Self-control and Purity of Thought: It advocated cultivating inner discipline, mindfulness, and moral clarity in one’s intentions.
• Welfare of All Beings: Ashoka considered all his subjects as his own children, dedicating himself to their happiness and welfare through various public initiatives.

(b) True Nature of Dhamma:

The essence of Ashoka’s Dhamma can be characterized as:

• A Code of Conduct, Not a Religion: It represented a set of ethical guidelines for virtuous living, deliberately free from specific rituals or deities associated with any single faith. While influenced by Buddhist ideals, its intention was universal applicability.
• Practical and Socially Oriented: Its primary objective was practical morality, aimed at creating a harmonious and just society.
• Rooted in Personal Transformation: Dhamma stemmed directly from Ashoka’s own profound change of heart following the Kalinga War, reflecting his sincere conviction that peace and morality held greater intrinsic value than military conquest.
• A Tool for Governance: Beyond being a personal ethical stance, Dhamma functioned as a method for ethical administration. It sought to culturally and morally unite his diverse empire, mitigate potential conflicts, and build loyalty among his populace.
• Emphasis on Self-Examination and Conscience: Ashoka consistently urged individuals to engage in introspection and act according to their own conscience, thereby promoting individual moral responsibility.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
Short Answer Questions:

Question 1.
What are our main sources of information on the Mauryan ruie ?
Ans:

1. Literary Sources:
   
   • Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya): This ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy provides detailed insights into the Mauryan administrative system, political principles, and social organization. It’s a key text for understanding how the empire was theoretically and practically governed.
   • Indika by Megasthenes: Written by the Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya’s court, this work (though surviving only in fragments quoted by later authors) offers valuable external observations on Mauryan society, administration, military, and geography from a foreign perspective.
2. Archaeological Sources:
   
   • Ashokan Edicts: These are numerous inscriptions carved on rocks and pillars across the vast Mauryan Empire. They are the most authentic and direct sources, providing first-hand information about Emperor Ashoka’s reign, his Dhamma (moral code), his policies of peace and social welfare, and also shed light on the geographical extent and administrative divisions of the empire.
   • Stupas and other architectural remains: Structures like the Great Stupa at Sanchi, originally commissioned by Ashoka, along with remnants of other Mauryan period architecture, offer insights into the religious practices, artistic advancements, and building techniques of the era. They also serve as physical evidence of the spread of Buddhism under Mauryan patronage.

Question 2.

Who wrote Arthashastra ? What is its importance ?

Ans:

The Arthashastra was written by Kautilya, who is also widely known as Chanakya (and sometimes Vishnugupta).

Its importance is immense for several reasons:

1. Comprehensive Guide to Statecraft: It is a foundational text on political science, economics, and military strategy from ancient India. It covers virtually every aspect of governance, including the duties of a king, the organization of the administration, law and justice, taxation, foreign policy, and warfare.
2. Economic Principles: The Arthashastra delves into detailed economic policies, including agriculture, trade, mining, currency, and public finance. It demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of economic management.
3. Military Strategy: It outlines comprehensive military strategies, including espionage, diplomacy, and the organization of the army, offering insights into ancient Indian warfare.
4. Historical Source: It serves as an invaluable primary source for historians studying ancient Indian political thought, social structure, and administrative systems, particularly relevant to the Mauryan period.
5. Realpolitik: It is often compared to Machiavelli’s The Prince due to its pragmatic and often ruthless approach to governance, emphasizing practical effectiveness over moralistic ideals in state management.

Question 3.

What is the importance of Ashoka’s edicts ?

Ans:

Ashoka’s Edicts hold immense importance for reconstructing the history of ancient India, particularly the Mauryan period, for several crucial reasons:

Primary and Reliable Historical Source: They are the earliest, most precisely dated, and best-preserved written records from ancient India. Being direct royal proclamations inscribed on stone, they offer unparalleled firsthand insights into Ashoka’s reign, his policies, and the prevailing socio-religious conditions of his time.

Window into Ashoka’s Dhamma: The edicts are the primary source for understanding Ashoka’s unique moral code, “Dhamma.” They explain his philosophy of peace, non-violence (Ahimsa), religious tolerance, and social welfare, showcasing his transformation after the Kalinga War.

Insights into Administration and Governance: The edicts reveal details about Ashoka’s commitment to ethical governance and public welfare. They mention officials like Dhamma Mahamatras and touch upon aspects of judicial administration and public services, illustrating the practical application of his ideals.

Geographical and Political Extent: The widespread distribution of these edicts across a vast area (including modern-day India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal) provides crucial information about the geographical expanse of the Mauryan Empire and its administrative divisions.

Evidence of Early Buddhism: While Dhamma was ecumenical, the edicts provide tangible evidence of Ashoka’s personal conversion to Buddhism and his efforts to propagate the religion, helping to trace the early spread of Buddhism in India and beyond.

Question 4.

What is a stupa ? Name one stupa built by Ashoka.

Ans:

These structures primarily house holy relics, including bodily remains (śarīra) of the Buddha or other enlightened beings, as well as their personal possessions or important scriptures. Stupas also serve as vital centers for pilgrimage and meditation, with the ritual of clockwise circumambulation (pradakshina) being a deeply significant devotional act.

From an architectural perspective, a stupa typically comprises a circular base supporting a solid, hemispherical dome, often referred to as the anda (or “egg”). Above this dome rests a square enclosure known as the harmika, from which a central mast, the yashti, ascends, topped by a series of symbolic umbrellas (chattra). Many stupas are additionally encompassed by a low perimeter wall (vedika) and adorned with intricate ceremonial gateways called toranas.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi, located in Madhya Pradesh, India, is a prominent example of a stupa associated with Emperor Ashoka. While its elaborate current form developed over several centuries, its foundational structure was initiated by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Historical accounts suggest that Ashoka played a pivotal role in the construction of numerous stupas—traditionally cited as 84,000—across his empire to enshrine and propagate the Buddha’s relics.

Question 5.

How did Chandragupta Maurya establish the Mauryan dynasty ?

Ans:

Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan dynasty through a combination of brilliant strategy, formidable military strength, and the crucial guidance of Chanakya (also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta). His rise to power occurred during a turbulent period after Alexander the Great’s departure from India, which created a power vacuum and left numerous fragmented states.

Chanakya, a distinguished scholar and strategist from Taxila, is widely recognized as the mastermind behind Chandragupta’s success. Historical accounts suggest that Chanakya, having been affronted by Dhana Nanda, the last Nanda king of Magadha, vowed to depose him. He identified Chandragupta as a promising young man with leadership potential and served as his mentor, providing comprehensive training in statecraft, military tactics, and economics. Chanakya’s political treatise, the Arthashastra, is believed to encapsulate many of the principles that guided Chandragupta’s reign.

Chandragupta, with Chanakya’s strategic direction, initiated a rebellion against the Nanda Empire, which, despite its power, was unpopular due to its oppressive rule. Early attempts to directly capture the Nanda capital, Pataliputra, were reportedly unsuccessful. Chanakya’s strategy then evolved to a more gradual approach, initially focusing on securing border regions and progressively building a stronger army and alliances. Ultimately, Chandragupta defeated Dhana Nanda in a series of battles, gaining control of Magadha and its capital, Pataliputra, around 321 BCE.

Following Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BCE, his generals and satraps in the northwestern Indian subcontinent left behind a fractured political landscape. Chandragupta swiftly capitalized on this instability. He raised an army and systematically expelled the remaining Greek forces and their local allies from the Punjab region and other northwestern areas, bringing these territories under his control by approximately 317-316 BCE.

With Magadha as his foundation and the northwestern regions secured, Chandragupta embarked on an aggressive expansionist policy, extending his authority across a vast area of the Indian subcontinent.Around 305 BCE, Chandragupta engaged Seleucus in a war, which concluded with a peace treaty. Under the terms of the treaty, Seleucus ceded significant territories, including parts of modern-day Afghanistan (Aria, Arachosia, Gedrosia, and Paropanisade), to Chandragupta. In return, Chandragupta presented Seleucus with 500 elephants. This alliance further solidified the Mauryan Empire’s western frontier and established its considerable power.

Question 6.

Give a brief account of the political conditions in India under Bindusara.

Ans:

Bindusara, the second Mauryan emperor, successfully built upon the foundations laid by his father, Chandragupta Maurya. Referred to as “Amitrochates” by the Greeks, signifying his prowess as an “enemy slayer,” he continued the empire’s expansion, notably extending Mauryan influence into the Deccan region of southern India. He also maintained the robust and centralized administrative framework established by Chandragupta, ensuring stability across the vast territories.

His reign was marked by continued diplomatic engagement with Hellenistic powers, as evidenced by the presence of ambassadors like Deimachus from Antiochus I Soter and Dionysius from Ptolemy II Philadelphus at his court. While generally stable, Bindusara did face internal challenges, such as a significant rebellion in Taxila, which was effectively suppressed by his son, Ashoka. The conclusion of his rule saw a period of succession conflict, out of which Ashoka ultimately emerged victorious to claim the throne.

Question 7.

What is the importance of Kalinga war in the personal life of Ashoka ?

Ans:

However, the immense devastation and suffering he witnessed firsthand after the conquest of Kalinga—with reports of over 100,000 killed and many more deported—filled him with deep remorse and regret.

This profound emotional experience led Ashoka to a spiritual awakening and a fundamental shift in his personal philosophy. He renounced military conquest and violence (bheri ghosha, the sound of war drums) and instead embraced Buddhism, dedicating himself to the path of Dhamma (dhamma ghosha, the sound of peace). This conversion, while possibly a gradual process that built on prior acquaintance with Buddhist teachings, solidified his commitment to non-violence (ahimsa), compassion, and ethical governance. The Kalinga War thus marked a turning point, transforming him from “Chandashoka” (Ashoka the Fierce) to “Dharmashoka” (Ashoka the Pious), shaping his personal values and guiding his imperial policies for the rest of his life.

Question 8.

Name the two taxes mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka.

Ans:

Ashoka’s Rummindei Pillar Inscription details two primary Mauryan taxes: Bhaga, an agricultural levy usually one-sixth of the yield from crops and livestock, and Bali, a religious offering. The edict specifically notes Ashoka’s special consideration for Lumbini, the Buddha’s birthplace, where he completely abolished the Bali tax and reduced the Bhaga to one-eighth of the produce.

Question 9.

Name four important ways in which Buddhism spread under the royal patronage during the Mauryan times.

Ans:

Ashoka’s royal patronage significantly propelled the spread of Buddhism during the Mauryan era through four main avenues. He initiated the construction of numerous stupas and viharas, establishing visible centers for Buddhist practice and pilgrimage. His issuance of edicts on pillars and rocks disseminated “Dhamma,” a moral code deeply rooted in Buddhist ethics, directly to the populace. Ashoka also dispatched Buddhist missionaries, including his own children and special “Dhammamahamatras,” to propagate the faith both within and beyond the empire’s borders.

Question 10.

What is meant by Ashoka’s Dhamma ?

Ans:

Ashoka’s Dhamma was a moral and ethical code propagated by Emperor Ashoka, primarily influenced by Buddhist principles but not a distinct religion itself. It was a universal code of conduct aimed at fostering peace, harmony, and well-being among all his subjects, irrespective of their faith.

Key tenets included non-violence (ahimsa) towards all living beings, respect for elders, tolerance towards all religious sects, truthfulness, compassion, generosity, purity of thought, and responsible social behavior. Ashoka promoted Dhamma through his edicts inscribed on rocks and pillars, urging people to live in peace and mutual understanding.

Question 11.

Give the basic principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma.

Ans:

Its core principles included:

• Non-violence (Ahimsa): A strong emphasis on refraining from harming any living being, human or animal, and a renunciation of war and conquest.
• Tolerance: Respect for all religious sects and beliefs, fostering an environment of mutual understanding rather than conflict.
• Ethical Conduct: Promotion of virtues like truthfulness, compassion, kindness, generosity, purity, and gentleness in daily life.
• Social Welfare: A commitment to the welfare of all subjects, including providing medical care for humans and animals, planting trees, and digging wells.

Question 12.

What was the impact of Dhamma an Ashoka’s policies?

Ans:

Ashoka’s Dhamma policies fundamentally reoriented the Mauryan Empire from an emphasis on military expansion to one centered on ethical governance and societal well-being. This transformation resulted in several significant outcomes:

Firstly, it fostered an era of peace and non-violence, as Ashoka promoted “Dhamma Vijaya” (conquest by righteousness) over traditional warfare, leading to a reduction in conflicts and greater harmony both internally and externally. Secondly, the policies led to ethical governance and public welfare, with Ashoka championing compassion, tolerance, and respect for all life. This was actualized through practical initiatives like the construction of roads, wells, rest houses, and the establishment of medical facilities for both humans and animals.

Thirdly, Dhamma cultivated religious tolerance and unity across the diverse empire. As a universal moral code, it transcended specific religious doctrines, encouraging mutual respect among various faiths and fostering a sense of shared identity. Finally, these policies brought about a social transformation, aiming to elevate societal conduct by promoting ethical behavior, justice, and fairness in daily interactions, including humane treatment of all beings and a reduction in animal sacrifices.

Question 13.

What is meant by Pan-Indian character of the Mauryan administration ?

Ans:

The Mauryan Empire’s “Pan-Indian character” highlights its unprecedented reach and uniform system of rule across the vast Indian subcontinent. While the area was once a collection of independent, smaller states, the Mauryas, notably under Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka, consolidated almost the entire landmass, from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and extending south to Mysore.

This expansive control was facilitated by a highly centralized and standardized administrative apparatus. The Mauryan government implemented consistent legal frameworks, employed a unified currency, developed an intricate bureaucracy with designated officials, managed a comprehensive system for collecting taxes, and maintained an efficient intelligence network throughout its diverse domains. As a result, a cohesive approach to governance, judicial matters, and economic oversight was uniformly applied across the empire, effectively uniting a substantial part of the Indian subcontinent under a single dominant power.

Question 14.

How was the district administration organised during Mauryan period ?

Ans:

The efficient Mauryan administration organized its vast empire into provinces, further divided into districts (aharas or janapadas), forming a critical link in the centralized system. The Pradesika (or Pradeshta) was the chief district officer, akin to a modern District Magistrate, responsible for law, order, and general governance. They were supported by Rajukas, who handled revenue, land measurement, and later, judicial duties, particularly in rural areas.

II. Structured Questions.

Question 1.
With reference to the sources of information on the Mauryan Empire, explain briefly the significance of the following:(a) Arthashastra (b) Indica (c) Sanchi Stupa
Ans:

Here’s the significance of each source for understanding the Mauryan Empire:

(a) Arthashastra: This ancient treatise, likely by Kautilya, offers an unparalleled, detailed blueprint of Mauryan statecraft. It reveals the empire’s administrative structure, economic policies, espionage, legal system, and diplomatic strategies, providing crucial insights into the pragmatic and centralized governance of the period.

(b) Indica: Written by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, this work (surviving in fragments) provides a unique foreign perspective on the Mauryan Empire. It describes the capital Pataliputra, the military, urban administration, and societal aspects like the caste system, offering valuable external observations that complement indigenous accounts.

(c) Sanchi Stupa: Originating with Ashoka, the Great Stupa at Sanchi serves as tangible archaeological proof of his patronage of Buddhism. Its core structure, built by Ashoka to house relics, visually confirms the Mauryan era’s pivotal role in promoting Buddhist architecture, art, and the widespread adoption of its principles.

Question 2.

With reference to Mauryan Empire, answer the following questions:

(a) Give a brief account of how Chandragupta established the Mauryan empire.

(b) Give a brief account of Kalinga war and its consequences.

Ans:

Here are concise accounts of the key events in the Mauryan Empire:

(a) Establishment of the Mauryan Empire by Chandragupta: Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan Empire around 322 BCE by overthrowing the unpopular Nanda dynasty in Magadha, likely aided by his strategist Chanakya (Kautilya). Following this, he expanded his control by campaigning against Seleucus I Nicator, a successor of Alexander the Great, thereby incorporating significant territories in Afghanistan and Balochistan and laying the groundwork for ancient India’s largest empire.

(b) The Kalinga War and its Consequences: The Kalinga War, fought around 261 BCE between Emperor Ashoka and Kalinga (modern Odisha), was a profoundly devastating conflict. The immense suffering witnessed in the war led to Ashoka’s deep remorse and a transformative conversion to Buddhism. Consequently, he renounced military conquest, adopting “Dhamma-vijaya” (conquest by righteousness) as his new state policy, focusing on spreading peace, non-violence, and Buddhist principles throughout his empire and beyond.

Question 3.

With reference to Mauryan administration, answer the following questions:

(a) Why is Chandragupta Maurya regarded as the chief architect of the system of administration ?

(b) Briefly describe the main features of civil and military administration under Mauryan rule.

(c) What is meant by the Pan-Indian character of the Mauryan administration ?

Ans:

Here’s a concise summary of the Mauryan administration:

(a) Chandragupta Maurya as Chief Architect: Chandragupta Maurya, guided by Chanakya, is credited with establishing the sophisticated and centralized administrative framework that formed the backbone of the vast Mauryan Empire.

(b) Civil and Military Administration: Mauryan civil administration was highly centralized, segmenting the empire into provinces, districts, and villages, each managed by dedicated officials for law, order, and revenue. The military was a powerful, centrally controlled standing army, divided into various branches (infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots, and navy), crucial for both internal control and border defense.

(c) Pan-Indian Character: The “Pan-Indian character” signifies the Mauryan administration’s remarkable uniformity and extensive reach across nearly the entire Indian subcontinent. This meant a consistent system of governance, laws, currency, bureaucracy, and taxation applied across diverse regions, politically unifying a vast territory previously fragmented into smaller states.

Question 4.

With reference to Provincial Governments under the Mauryan rule, answer the following questions

(a) Name the different provinces and their capitals into which the Mauryan empire was divided.

(b) How was the provincial administration run ?

(c) What changes were brought about in the Mauryan administration during Ashoka’s reign ?

Ans:

(a)

(b) How was the provincial administration run? The Mauryan Empire, though highly centralized, effectively managed its vast territories by dividing them into provinces. These provinces were typically administered by royal princes (Kumaras or Aryaputras) or high-ranking officials known as Viceroys. The provincial governors wielded significant authority, overseeing law and order, revenue collection, and often commanding local military forces. They were responsible for maintaining the Mauryan administrative structure within their respective regions, ensuring tribute flowed to the central treasury, and suppressing any local disturbances. The provinces were further subdivided into districts for more granular control.

(c) What changes were brought about in the Mauryan administration during Ashoka’s reign? 

Ashoka’s reign brought significant moral and ethical dimensions to the existing Mauryan administrative framework, primarily through his concept of “Dhamma.” While the core structure remained centralized, Ashoka introduced key changes:

• Moral Governance (Dhamma): The administration’s primary objective shifted to promoting “Dhamma” – a moral code emphasizing non-violence, tolerance, and social welfare. This meant governance was not just about control and revenue, but about the moral upliftment of the populace.
• Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras: Ashoka created a new class of officers called Dhamma Mahamatras. Their role was unique; they were not just civil servants but moral police and welfare officers, tasked with propagating Dhamma, ensuring justice, and looking after the welfare of all religious sects and vulnerable groups.
• Emphasis on Public Welfare: Ashoka directed administrative efforts towards public welfare, including the construction of rest houses, wells, hospitals (for both humans and animals), and the planting of trees, reflecting the benevolent aspects of Dhamma.
• Reduced Militarism (Post-Kalinga): Following the Kalinga War, there was a noticeable shift from aggressive military expansion to a policy of conquest through Dhamma. While the military remained, its primary function became maintaining internal stability and security rather than outward expansion, influencing administrative priorities.
• Judicial Reforms and Leniency: Ashoka introduced some judicial reforms aimed at fairness and even offered periods of respite for condemned prisoners.

Question 5.

With reference to the Mauryan administration write short notes on the following:

(a) District Administration (b) Revenue system

Ans:

Administration 

The administration was structured hierarchically to maintain control over the vast empire. Pradesika was in charge of these districts. Subordinate to them were Rajukas, who were responsible for judicial functions, land surveys, and revenue collection. Yuktas assisted them, focusing on the collection of specific taxes.

At the most local level, the Gramani served as the village head, acting as a link between the central government and the rural population. Sthanikas were responsible for collecting taxes from a cluster of villages, while Gopas were tasked with maintaining detailed village records.

Revenue System 

The empire’s revenue system was overseen by a collector-general called the Samaharta. The primary sources of income were agriculture 🌾, forestry, mining ⛏️, and commerce. The most significant taxes were:

• Bhaga: A land tax, typically amounting to one-sixth of the agricultural yield.
• Bali: A religious tax or tribute.

Question 6.

With reference to the spread of Buddhism under the Mauryas, answer the following questions:

(a) What was the Mauryan concept of Universal Empire?

(b) Give the important causes for the spread of Buddhism.

(c) What was known as ‘Ashoka’s Dhamma’? State its features and principles.

Ans:

(a) Mauryan Universal Empire Concept: Ashoka’s vision for the Mauryan Empire evolved beyond simple territorial control, aiming for a “Universal Empire.” This concept sought to unite diverse populations under shared moral and ethical “Dhamma,” fostering widespread peace and mutual respect through moral influence rather than solely military strength.

(b) Causes for Buddhism’s Spread under Mauryas: Buddhism’s growth was significantly propelled by Emperor Ashoka’s robust royal patronage, which included extensive religious construction and state-backed propagation via edicts and missionaries. Its straightforward teachings in local languages, egalitarianism against caste divisions, an organized monastic order (Sangha), and compelling ethical principles like non-violence further contributed to its widespread adoption.

(c) ‘Ashoka’s Dhamma’: Features and Principles: ‘Ashoka’s Dhamma’ was an ethical and moral framework, not a new religion, deeply rooted in Buddhist principles and designed to cultivate a harmonious society.

Features: It functioned as a practical, universal moral guide for all subjects, actively promoted as state policy through public welfare initiatives and the appointment of special officers (Dhammamahamatras).

Principles: Its core tenets included strict non-violence (ahimsa), respect and tolerance for all religious groups, deference to elders, benevolence towards subordinates, generosity, truthfulness, self-discipline, and a strong emphasis on social responsibility.

Question 7.
Study the Ashokan Edict and answer the following questions:

Question 1.
What is an edict ? Where are these edicts inscribed ?
Ans:

An edict is an official declaration or order issued by a ruling power or government. In the case of Ashoka, these were royal directives that conveyed his policies, ethical code (Dhamma), and instructions to his people and officials.

These edicts are primarily found inscribed on two types of surfaces:

1. Rocks: These are classified as Major Rock Edicts and Minor Rock Edicts, found etched into natural rock faces.
2. Pillars: Referred to as Pillar Edicts, these are carved onto monumental sandstone pillars specially erected for this purpose.

Question 2.

What is the significance of edicts as a source of information ?

Ans:

Edicts are vital historical sources due to several key factors:

Firstly, as primary source material, they offer direct, contemporary insights into the ruler’s thoughts, policies, and concerns, unlike later interpretations. Ashoka’s edicts, for example, provide his direct pronouncements, invaluable for understanding his reign.

Secondly, their authenticity and reliability are high because they are inscribed on durable materials like stone, making them less susceptible to alteration or loss compared to other forms of records.

Thirdly, edicts offer crucial insights into governance and ideology, detailing administrative policies, laws, moral frameworks, and the prevailing societal ideology. Ashoka’s edicts specifically reveal his Dhamma, administrative concerns, and efforts to promote ethics and tolerance.

Fourthly, they provide essential chronological and geographical context. Their locations reveal the empire’s reach, and their dates help establish historical timelines.

Fifthly, beyond politics, edicts contain valuable socio-cultural information, outlining tax systems, welfare programs, religious practices, and societal attitudes.

Finally, they are indispensable for linguistic and epigraphic study, providing data critical for deciphering ancient languages and scripts, such as Brahmi and Kharosthi from Ashokan edicts, which unlocked vast historical knowledge.

Question 3.

Explain briefly the importance of Ashoka’s edicts, giving example from one of his edicts.

Ans:

Ashoka’s edicts are incredibly important because they are the most authentic and direct source of information about his reign, his policies, and his personal transformation. Unlike later written accounts, these inscriptions are contemporary records carved onto rocks and pillars throughout his empire, making them highly reliable.

For example, Rock Edict XIII is particularly significant.This edict reveals Ashoka’s profound remorse and regret after witnessing such devastation, explicitly stating his subsequent conversion to Dhamma and his decision to renounce war in favor of “conquest by Dhamma” (moral conquest). This single edict provides unparalleled insight into a pivotal moment in ancient Indian history and the personal evolution of one of its most influential rulers.