The Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire’s story is a fascinating journey of establishment, expansion, and eventual decline, built upon a foundation laid by a series of powerful and influential rulers.

Establishment and Early Challenges

The empire’s beginnings trace back to 1526 when Babur, a Central Asian ruler with lineage to both Timur and Genghis Khan, defeated the Delhi Sultanate at the Battle of Panipat. This victory established Mughal rule in northern India. Babur’s son, Humayun, faced significant early struggles, including a period of exile. This interregnum saw the rise of the Afghan chief Sher Shah Suri, who introduced significant administrative reforms, particularly in land revenue and infrastructure. His innovative governance served as a model for later Mughal administration.

The Golden Age: Akbar’s Reign

The Mughal Empire reached its zenith under Akbar. Akbar’s administrative reforms were particularly impactful, including the Mansabdari system, which organized the civil and military bureaucracy. He also implemented the efficient land revenue system developed by his finance minister, Raja Todar Mal. Akbar’s religious policy was notably progressive; he abolished the Jizya tax on non-Muslims and promoted interfaith dialogue, embodying his philosophy of Din-i-Ilahi, or “divine faith.”

Artistic Splendor and Decline

The empire’s artistic and architectural legacy continued under Akbar’s successors. Jahangir was a great patron of painting, while Shah Jahan’s reign is celebrated for its monumental architecture, most notably the Taj Mahal, a symbol of Mughal grandeur. His extensive military campaigns and a more orthodox religious stance, including the re-imposition of the Jizya tax, alienated key groups like the Rajputs, Marathas, and Sikhs. These policies weakened central authority, leading to the rise of regional powers and the eventual fragmentation of the empire. The history of this remarkable period is preserved not only in architectural masterpieces but also in contemporary chronicles like the Akbarnama and the Tuzuk-i-Baburi.

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Name any two sources to reconstruct the Age of the Mughals.
Ans:

Historians reconstructing the Mughal era benefit greatly from two key categories of sources:

1. The Ain-i-Akbari: Authored by Abul Fazl, Emperor Akbar’s close confidant and chronicler, this magnum opus offers an exhaustive internal view of the Mughal Empire. As the final installment of the Akbarnama, it meticulously details Akbar’s administrative policies, the intricacies of the land revenue system, societal norms, economic activities, and cultural expressions. 
2. Accounts of Foreign Travelers: Observations from non-Indian visitors to the Mughal court provide a vital external perspective. Though occasionally influenced by personal leanings, these narratives illuminate various aspects of the empire.

Question 2.

Who wrote Ain-i-Akbari.

Ans:

To effectively reconstruct the Age of the Mughals, historians draw upon a rich tapestry of historical evidence. Two primary sources stand out for their depth and unique perspectives:

1. Ain-i-Akbari: Its comprehensive nature makes it an indispensable primary source for understanding the inner workings and daily life of the Mughal Empire.
2. Travel Accounts of Foreign Visitors: The observations of various foreign travelers who journeyed through India during the Mughal period provide crucial external perspectives. Figures like the French physician Francois Bernier, whose “Travels in the Mogul Empire” vividly portrays Mughal court life, societal norms, and economic landscapes, and the Italian adventurer Niccolao Manucci, whose “Storia do Mogor” offers detailed accounts of the Mughal military and social customs, are particularly noteworthy. While these accounts may carry a degree of subjectivity, they offer unique insights into the empire from an outsider’s viewpoint, complementing the indigenous chronicles.

Question 3.

What information does Abul Fazl provide about Akbar’s Admiralty Department ?

Ans:

The Ain-i-Akbari details the administration of the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar, shedding light on what could be considered its naval establishment. Abul Fazl, the author, describes an office designated as the Mir Bahri, which functioned as a central authority for maritime affairs. It’s crucial to note, however, that Abul Fazl’s account suggests this was less a full-fledged naval department in the contemporary understanding and more an extensive organization primarily managing a fleet of riverine vessels and boats.

The responsibilities of the Mir Bahri were systematically divided into two key areas:

• Material and Logistics: This branch oversaw the crucial tasks of designing, constructing, and maintaining the various ships and rafts. Their purview extended to ensuring the availability of all necessary materials and resources for the fleet’s operational readiness.
  
• Human Resources and Training: This section was dedicated to the recruitment and development of the seafaring personnel. It categorized sailors into distinct roles: the Nakhoda served as the captain, responsible for overall command; the Mualim acted as the navigator, guiding the vessels; and the Kherwah constituted the general seamen, performing various duties on board.

Question 4.

Name any two monuments that help to reconstruct the history of the Mughals.

Ans:

Two significant monuments that are crucial for reconstructing the history of the Mughals are:

1. Humayun’s Tomb (Delhi): Built in the mid-16th century, this tomb marks a significant departure in Mughal architecture, often considered a precursor to the Taj Mahal. Its design, incorporating Persian charbagh garden layouts, double domes, and a central chamber, showcases the evolving architectural style under the Mughals and the strong Persian influence. It provides insights into early Mughal funerary architecture and the artistic tastes of the period, particularly during the reign of Akbar, as it was commissioned by Humayun’s wife, Haji Begum.
   
2. Agra Fort (Agra): A massive fort complex primarily built by Emperor Akbar in the mid-16th century, though subsequent emperors like Shah Jahan also added to it. The Agra Fort serves as a powerful testament to Mughal military might and administrative prowess. Its diverse structures, including palaces, audience halls (Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas), and mosques, showcase the blend of indigenous Indian architectural elements with Islamic and Persian styles. It was a primary residence and administrative center for several Mughal emperors, thus offering a physical representation of their power, daily life, and evolving architectural preferences over generations.

Question 5.

Name the two magnificent buildings within the Red Fort.

Ans:

Within the formidable walls of the Red Fort stand two exquisite structures, each telling a distinct story of Mughal imperial life:

1. Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience): This expansive and impressive hall served as the primary venue for the Mughal emperor’s public appearances. Here, the ruler would convene with the common populace, listen to their petitions, and dispense justice. Characterized by its sweeping arches and finely detailed embellishments, the hall culminates in a raised marble platform at the rear, signifying the emperor’s majestic seat. Its architectural layout communicates a sense of transparency and direct engagement between the monarch and his subjects.
   
2. Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience): Offering a stark contrast to its public counterpart, the Diwan-i-Khas was a more secluded and sumptuously adorned chamber. This elegant space was exclusively dedicated to confidential discussions with high-ranking officials, esteemed nobles, and visiting foreign dignitaries. It epitomized the lavishness of the Mughal court, having once gleamed with inlaid jewels, a ceiling of silver, and pillars overlaid with gold, and notably, it was the original home of the fabled Peacock Throne.

Question 6.

Mention any two architectural features of the Jama Masjid at Delhi.

Ans:

Here are two prominent architectural features of the Jama Masjid in Delhi:

1. Grandeur of Scale and Proportion: The towering minarets further emphasize its imposing presence, creating a sense of awe and spiritual elevation through its monumental scale.
   
2. Strategic Use of Red Sandstone and White Marble: A defining characteristic of the Jama Masjid is the striking visual contrast created by the extensive use of red sandstone.  This classic Mughal architectural combination is evident in the alternating vertical strips on the domes, the intricate patterns on the minarets, and the gleaming marble accents on the prayer hall’s facade.

Question 7.

In whose memory was the Taj Mahal built ?

Ans:

The Taj Mahal, an iconic mausoleum, was commissioned by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to honor his cherished wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Devastated by her death, Shah Jahan began the construction of this magnificent white marble monument as a timeless testament to his profound love for her.

Question 8.

Whom did Babur defeat at the battlefield of Panipat? What was its consequence?

Ans:

The First Battle of Panipat in 1526 was a turning point in Indian history where Babur’s forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi, bringing about significant changes.

End of an Era and the Dawn of a New One

The death of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi on the battlefield was the final blow to a long-standing empire. This defeat cleared the way for the establishment of the Mughal Empire, a new and powerful entity that would dominate the Indian subcontinent for centuries and deeply influence its cultural and political future.

Military Revolution

Babur’s victory was a military revolution. He introduced gunpowder warfare, using cannons and muskets for the first time on a large scale in India. These methods gave his smaller army a decisive edge over Ibrahim Lodi’s forces, which relied on traditional cavalry and elephants.

Political Transformation

The victory at Panipat laid the groundwork for a more centralized rule under the Mughals, moving away from the more fragmented power structure of the Delhi Sultanate’s later years. It was the crucial first step for Babur to begin consolidating his power across the region.

Question 9.

What was the result of Babur’s encounter with a huge confederacy of Rajputs at Khanua?

Ans:

This outcome was profoundly significant for several reasons:

• Consolidation of Mughal Rule: The victory at Khanwa firmly established Babur’s nascent Mughal Empire in India. While the Battle of Panipat (1526) had led to the overthrow of the Delhi Sultanate, it was Khanwa that crushed the most formidable indigenous challenge to Babur’s authority and solidified his position in Northern India.
  
• Weakening of Rajput Power: The defeat at Khanwa dealt a severe blow to the Rajput confederacy. Though the Rajputs continued to be a significant force, their unified power to challenge the Mughals on a grand scale was significantly diminished after this battle.
  
• Demonstration of Mughal Military Superiority: Babur’s innovative military tactics, particularly the effective use of gunpowder artillery and muskets, combined with his strategic formations (like the tulughma), proved superior to the traditional Rajput cavalry charges. This battle highlighted the technological and tactical advantages the Mughals possessed.
  
• Expansion of Mughal Territory: Following this victory, Babur was able to further expand his control over key areas in North India, including forts like Gwalior and Dholpur, and parts of Alwar.

Question 10.

What is the significance of the Second Battle of Panipat (1556)?

Ans:

The Second Battle of Panipat, waged on November 5, 1556, between the forces of the youthful Mughal Emperor Akbar (led by his regent Bairam Khan) and the Hindu king Hemu, was a watershed moment in Indian history.

It simultaneously extinguished the final formidable challenge to Mughal dominance from the Afghan Sur dynasty, whose resurgence under Hemu was decisively thwarted. By neutralizing this existential threat, the battle paved the way for Akbar’s expansive and culturally rich reign, enabling him to focus on empire-building and administrative reforms that characterized the Mughal Golden Age. Furthermore, the engagement underscored the critical role of strategic military discipline and even opportune fortune in determining the outcome of battles, with the Mughals leveraging their tactics and benefiting from a timely injury to Hemu.

Question 11.

Name any two Deccan territories included in Akbar’s empire.

Ans:

To determine which Deccan territories were part of Akbar’s empire, I will perform a search.

Here are the search queries:

• “Which Deccan territories did Akbar annex?”
• “Akbar’s expansion into the Deccan”
• “Deccan territories under Akbar’s rule” During the reign of Emperor Akbar, the Mughal Empire initiated its expansion into the Deccan. While a complete annexation of the entire Deccan peninsula was a prolonged process that continued under his successors, Akbar successfully brought certain significant territories under Mughal control.

Two such Deccan territories included in Akbar’s empire were:

1. Khandesh: This was one of the earliest Deccan kingdoms to come under significant Mughal influence and eventually be fully annexed by Akbar.
2. Part of Ahmadnagar: Although the entire Ahmadnagar Sultanate was not fully absorbed by Akbar (its complete annexation occurred later under Aurangzeb), Akbar’s forces captured its capital city and substantial portions of its territory, including the region of Berar. 

Question 12.

What was Akbar’s Mansabdari System ?

Ans:

Akbar’s Mansabdari System was a sophisticated administrative and military structure, central to Mughal governance. A “mansab” was a unique rank given to imperial officers, covering both civilian and military duties. This rank determined their status, salary, and the number of soldiers and horses they had to maintain for the imperial army.

Each mansabdar received two numerical designations:

• Zat: This number reflected the officer’s personal prestige and salary. 
• Sawar: The relationship between Zat and Sawar could vary, indicating different military obligations.

This comprehensive system achieved several key goals: it created a uniform ranking order across the vast Mughal Empire, ensured a constant supply of organized military forces, and seamlessly blended administrative and military responsibilities, forming the foundation of the Mughal bureaucracy. The Mansabdari System was a crucial innovation that streamlined governance and military command during Akbar’s reign.

Question 13.

Akbar’s Din-I-Ilahi was based on what principles or beliefs ?

Ans:

Akbar’s Din-i Ilahi, also known as “Divine Monotheism,” emerged in 1582 not as a conventional new religion, but rather as an ethical framework and a form of “spiritual guidance” for his diverse populace.

Its fundamental tenets included:

• Universal Peace (Sulh-i-Kul): This core principle championed religious tolerance and harmony, aiming to quell conflicts and foster unity across his religiously varied empire.
• Monotheism: It emphasized the belief in a single, universal God, transcending specific religious doctrines, and encouraged a direct, personal spiritual connection, echoing Sufi concepts.
• Ethical Conduct: The system promoted elevated moral standards, advocating virtues like piety, prudence, kindness, and forgiveness, while discouraging vices such as lust, slander, and pride.
• Interfaith Respect: Adherents were encouraged to respect all faiths and avoid religious discrimination.
• Non-violence and Vegetarianism: The Din-i Ilahi promoted non-harm towards all living creatures, discouraging meat consumption and association with those involved in animal slaughter.
• Loyalty to the Emperor: While not a rigid religious mandate, followers were expected to exhibit strong loyalty to Akbar as their spiritual leader, with varying degrees of devotion.
• Social Betterment: It also integrated social reforms, such as discouraging child marriage and promoting charitable acts.

Question 14.

Name any two Departments of Government during the Mughal Age.

Ans:

During the Mughal era, the imperial administrative machinery was meticulously organized into distinct departments, each playing a critical role in the empire’s governance. Two such prominent departments were:

Diwan-i-Wizarat (Department of Revenue and Finance): This included meticulous oversight of the land revenue system, which formed the bedrock of the Mughal economy, maintaining accurate treasury records, approving various grants and disbursements, and generally ensuring the empire’s financial stability. The effectiveness of this department was directly proportional to the state’s economic health and overall political stability.

Mir Bakhshi (Military Department): Tasked with the entire military administration of the empire, this department was under the command of the Mir Bakhshi. Furthermore, the Mir Bakhshi was accountable for the timely payment of soldiers’ salaries, conducting thorough inspections of troops, and strategically deploying military units across the vast empire. Although the emperor held ultimate command, the Mir Bakhshi was instrumental in upholding the strength, discipline, and operational readiness of the Mughal armed forces.

Question 15.

Who was at the head of the Finance Department under Mughal rule.

Ans:

Under the Mughal administrative system, the apex of the Finance Department was held by an official known primarily as the Diwan, or more formally, the Diwan-i-Kul (Chief Diwan).

This exceptionally influential position carried comprehensive oversight of the empire’s financial machinery. The responsibilities encompassed:

• Revenue Administration: Directing the processes of evaluating and collecting all forms of state income, including land revenue and various other levies.
• Budgetary Control: Regulating the allocation and disbursement of all state funds across diverse governmental sectors.
• Treasury Management: Supervising the imperial treasury’s operations and safeguarding its assets.
• Financial Auditing: Meticulously examining and verifying all financial records and accounts.
• Provincial Fiscal Supervision: Maintaining direct communication with the provincial diwans and rigorously monitoring their financial activities.

The immense power and accountability vested in this office were underscored by the requirement of the Diwan-i-Kul’s personal seal and signature for the authentication of any official document pertaining to revenue. A prominent historical example of a finance minister (Diwan) who introduced pivotal revenue reforms during Emperor Akbar’s rule was Raja Todar Mal.

Question 16.

Name the master architect who designed the Taj Mahal.

Ans:

While historical records indicate a collaborative effort involving many skilled artisans and architects in the creation of the Taj Mahal, the name most frequently associated with its overall design and supervision is Ustad Ahmed Lahori. He is widely regarded as the principal architect or chief designer of this iconic monument.

It’s important to understand that large Mughal projects like the Taj Mahal were typically the result of a collective genius, with specialists from various fields – calligraphers, masons, dome builders, garden designers, and mosaicists – contributing their expertise. However, Ustad Ahmed Lahori is consistently identified as the figure who brought these diverse talents together under a cohesive architectural vision, serving as the leading mind behind its majestic form.

Question 17.

Diwan-i-Khas in the Red Fort was used by the Emperor for what purpose ?

Ans:

The Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) within the Red Fort served as the exclusive chamber where the Mughal emperor would conduct highly confidential and important affairs of state. 

• Private meetings with high-ranking officials and nobles: The emperor would consult with his most trusted ministers, military commanders, and influential courtiers on critical matters of governance, policy, and strategy.
• Receiving foreign dignitaries and ambassadors: Important diplomatic exchanges and receptions for envoys from other kingdoms and empires took place in this more intimate and opulent setting.
• Discussing sensitive state matters: Decisions regarding revenue, security, warfare, and other crucial administrative issues were deliberated in this private space.
• Hosting select intimate gatherings: While primarily for official purposes, it also served as a venue for smaller, more private cultural or celebratory gatherings with a select few.

Question 18.

Mention any two factors responsible for Humayun’s failure against Sher Shah Suri.

Ans:

The conflict between Humayun and Sher Shah Suri was a classic example of how contrasting leadership styles and strategic approaches can determine the outcome of a war. Humayun’s defeat and the temporary collapse of the Mughal Empire were a direct result of his weaknesses when faced with Sher Shah’s strengths.

Humayun’s Ineffective Leadership

Humayun’s leadership was characterized by a lack of decisiveness and an inability to maintain a unified command. His campaigns were often disorganized, and his nobles frequently quarreled amongst themselves, preventing the army from acting as a cohesive force. This hesitation and internal conflict gave his rival, Sher Shah, the critical time and space needed to strengthen his forces and plan his maneuvers.

Sher Shah Suri’s Strategic Mastery

In stark contrast, Sher Shah Suri was a brilliant and disciplined military leader with a clear strategic vision. He possessed a profound understanding of the local geography, which he used to his advantage in key battles such as Chausa and Kannauj. His army was well-organized and highly disciplined, responding swiftly to his decisive commands. Sher Shah’s superior tactics and his ability to capitalize on Humayun’s disorganization were the key factors that led to his systematic defeat of the Mughals and the establishment of the Sur Empire.

Question 19.

Mention any two revenue reforms instituted by Sher Shah Suri.

Ans:

Sher Shah Suri implemented pivotal revenue reforms that profoundly impacted later administrations, including the Mughals. His key innovations included:

Precise Land Assessment: He introduced comprehensive land surveys, categorizing agricultural lands by fertility (excellent, average, poor) to ensure a fair and accurate basis for revenue calculation, moving away from arbitrary estimations.

Standardized Documentation: To enhance transparency and accountability, Sher Shah formalized the system with the ‘Patta,’ a document detailing land specifics and revenue obligations, and the ‘Qabuliyat,’ the peasant’s written agreement to these terms.

Question 20.

What is the significance of Akbar’s Mansabdari system?

Ans:

Akbar’s Mansabdari system was pivotal to the Mughal administration, fundamentally reorganizing both its military and civil functions. This innovative system introduced a standardized, hierarchical structure where every official received a “mansab,” or rank, dictating their status, pay, and the number of cavalrymen and horses they were to maintain. This replaced earlier fragmented systems, integrating all state servants under a single framework.

Crucially, the Mansabdari system underpinned the Mughal military. The dual ‘zat’ (personal rank) and ‘sawar’ (cavalry rank) aspects ensured a readily available standing army, vital for the empire’s military triumphs and expansion.

Beyond its military role, the system acted as a potent instrument of imperial control. Mansabs were impermanent and directly subject to the emperor’s will, ensuring the nobility’s dependence and preventing the emergence of autonomous regional powers. 

Lastly, the Mansabdari system significantly influenced revenue management and state spending. Salaries were often disbursed through land revenue assignments (jagirs), which, despite evolving challenges, initially streamlined revenue collection and directly linked resources to military and bureaucratic upkeep, thereby serving imperial objectives.

Question 21.

Mention the nature of Akbar’s Din-I-Ilahi.

Ans:

Akbar’s Din-i Ilahi: A Personal Ethical Fellowship

Akbar’s Din-i Ilahi was not a novel religion but rather a distinctive endeavor to integrate the most commendable tenets from various faiths into a unified moral and ethical system. This exclusive fellowship was reserved for a select few, indicative of Akbar’s individual spiritual quest rather than a widespread doctrine.

Essentially, the Din-i Ilahi was a diverse synthesis, extracting universal truths and ethical principles from Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Jainism. It championed monotheism, peace, tolerance, and virtuous conduct. 

Membership was a personal and restricted privilege, extended only to a select group of loyal nobles and scholars who resonated with Akbar’s philosophical views. Initiates pledged allegiance to Akbar as a spiritual mentor and adopted specific greetings. Although primarily a spiritual pursuit, the Din-i Ilahi also offered a secondary political benefit by fostering religious harmony and garnering support from a diverse nobility for the Emperor.

Question 22.

How did Jahangir deal with the Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev?

Ans:

Beyond this political affront, Jahangir’s deeply conservative Sunni Islamic beliefs contributed significantly to his animosity. He viewed the burgeoning influence of Sikhism with suspicion, perceiving it as a deviation from established religious norms and a potential threat to his authority. His personal memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, explicitly reveal his desire to either compel Guru Arjan Dev’s conversion to Islam or suppress his religious endeavors. 

Question 23.

Why was the title of ‘Shah Jahan’ conferred on Prince Khurram by Jahangir ?

Ans:

Key Reasons for the Title

• Triumphs in the Deccan Campaigns (1617): Khurram played a pivotal role in securing the Mughal Empire’s southern frontiers. He spearheaded a significant campaign that led to a peaceful resolution with the Lodi faction in the Deccan, firmly establishing Mughal dominance in that area. This impressive victory underscored his military skill and strategic brilliance, greatly pleasing Jahangir.
  
• Exceptional Military Acumen: Even prior to the Deccan campaigns, Khurram had showcased extraordinary military talent. These consistent demonstrations of leadership and battlefield effectiveness cemented his reputation as a highly capable commander.
  
• Recognition of Elevated Status: By conferring the title “Shah Jahan,” Jahangir not only acknowledged Khurram’s specific achievements but also formally recognized his increasing prominence within the Mughal imperial structure.

Question 24.

Who was Nur Jahan?

Ans:

Nur Jahan was one of the most powerful and influential empresses of the Mughal Empire. Her remarkable intelligence, political acumen, and artistic sensibilities allowed her to wield extraordinary power behind the throne during Jahangir’s reign, particularly as his health declined.

She was not merely a consort but actively participated in governance, issuing firmans (royal decrees), having coins struck in her name, and often advising on crucial state matters. Beyond politics, Nur Jahan was also a patron of architecture, design, and poetry, leaving a significant cultural imprint on the Mughal court. Her period of influence is often considered a golden age for women in Mughal history.

Question 25.

Why did Shah Jahan revolt against his father?

Ans:

While the exact reasons for Shah Jahan’s revolt against his father, Emperor Jahangir, are complex and multi-faceted, two primary factors stand out:

1. Succession Struggle and Nur Jahan’s Influence: Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) was a highly capable and successful military commander, viewed by many as Jahangir’s heir apparent. However, Jahangir’s powerful and ambitious wife, Empress Nur Jahan, began to exert significant influence over the imperial court, promoting her own favored candidate for the throne – her son-in-law, Prince Shahryar (Jahangir’s youngest son). This shift in court dynamics and Nur Jahan’s open support for Shahryar created a direct threat to Khurram’s succession, pushing him to take preemptive action to secure his claim.
2. Loss of Imperial Favor and Fear of Disinheritance: As Nur Jahan’s influence grew, Khurram gradually fell out of favor with his father. He was often given difficult and dangerous assignments far from the capital, while Nur Jahan’s faction consolidated power. Khurram likely feared that he would be disinherited or sidelined if he did not assert his position. His revolt, though ultimately unsuccessful in the short term, was an attempt to reclaim his standing and eliminate the threat posed by Nur Jahan’s clique.

In essence, Shah Jahan’s rebellion was a desperate measure born out of a perceived threat to his rightful inheritance, fueled by the intense succession politics and the growing power of Empress Nur Jahan at the Mughal court:

1. Succession Ambitions and Nur Jahan’s Rivalry: As a highly successful and influential prince, Shah Jahan (then Prince Khurram) was widely considered the most likely successor to the throne. However, Empress Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, wielded immense power and actively promoted her own son-in-law, Prince Shahryar, as the next emperor. This direct challenge to Khurram’s claim and Nur Jahan’s increasing control over court affairs spurred his rebellion to secure his position.
2. Perceived Threat of Disinheritance: With Nur Jahan’s growing influence, Khurram sensed a diminishing imperial favor and a real possibility of being sidelined or disinherited. He feared that during prolonged military campaigns away from the capital, Nur Jahan’s faction would further solidify its power and turn Jahangir completely against him. His revolt was a desperate gamble to pre-empt this perceived threat and assert his undeniable right to the succession.

Question 26.

Mention Shah Jahan’s conquests in the Deccan.

Ans:

Emperor Shah Jahan significantly expanded Mughal dominion into the Deccan region through a series of forceful military and diplomatic initiatives. A pivotal achievement was the complete absorption of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in 1636, thereby integrating a substantial portion of the Deccan directly into the Mughal Empire. In the same year, he asserted Mughal authority over the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda. Through strategic treaties, these two powerful states were compelled to acknowledge Mughal overlordship, agree to regular tribute payments, and submit to restrictions on their foreign policy. 

Question 27.

Where is Humayun’s Tomb located? Mention any two features of the monument.

Ans:

Here are two prominent features of the monument:

1. The Charbagh Garden Layout: Humayun’s Tomb is famously situated within a grand charbagh, or “four-part garden,” which is a distinct Persian architectural tradition. This symmetrical garden is divided into four main quadrants by walkways and water channels, symbolizing the four rivers of paradise mentioned in the Quran. This layout was a significant innovation in Mughal architecture in India and later influenced the design of other major Mughal tombs, most notably the Taj Mahal.
   
2. Double-Domed Structure and Use of Materials: The tomb itself is crowned by a striking double dome, a feature of Persian architecture that was introduced to India on a grand scale with this monument. The outer layer of the dome provides its impressive exterior height, while the inner layer creates a lower, more intimate ceiling for the interior chamber. The monument is primarily constructed from red sandstone, with extensive use of white marble for intricate detailing, borders, and the prominent central dome. This striking contrast in colors became a hallmark of later Mughal architectural masterpieces.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.
Akbar had both the time and inclination to look at the administrative problems of the Empire. In this context describe briefly.
(a) His Mansabdari System
(b) His Land Revenue System
Ans:

Emperor Akbar, revered for his insightful administrative acumen, initiated profound changes that fundamentally restructured the governance of the Mughal Empire. Two of his most significant contributions include:

(a) The Mansabdari System: This innovative system formed the foundational structure of Akbar’s military and civilian administration. Under this framework, state officials were granted a mansab, or rank, which determined their place in the hierarchy, their salary, and critically, the exact number of cavalrymen they were required to maintain for the emperor’s service. This elaborate system established a clear chain of command, promoted accountability among officials, and provided the emperor with a readily available military force whose daily expenses were distributed. It served as a potent instrument for consolidating imperial authority over the nobility and for organizing the vast Mughal armed forces.

(b) The Land Revenue System (Zabt System / Todar Mal’s Bandobast): Recognizing the critical need for a stable and equitable source of state income, Akbar implemented an advanced land revenue .This system, also referred to as the Zabt system or Bandobast system, incorporated several key elements:

• Accurate Survey and Measurement: Agricultural lands underwent meticulous surveying and measurement using standardized units, ensuring precision in revenue assessment.
• Revenue Assessment Based on Average Yield: The state’s share of revenue was precisely set at one-third of the calculated ten-year average yield for various crops.
• Encouragement of Cash Payments: Although payment in kind was an option, the system actively promoted cash payments, with crop prices determined by prevailing local market rates. This reform aimed to reduce corruption, ensure transparent and fair revenue assessment, and provide fiscal stability to both the cultivators and the imperial treasury.

Question 2.

Akbar was the greatest of all medieval rulers of India. In this context describe: His policy of racial pacification and religious tolerance.

Ans:

His racial pacification involved:

• Integrating Rajputs: Through matrimonial alliances and appointing them to high administrative and military positions (e.g., Raja Man Singh, Raja Todar Mal), he secured their loyalty and utilized their talents, transforming former adversaries into pillars of the empire.
• Merit-based appointments: He promoted individuals from diverse backgrounds (Shia, Afghan, Brahmin) based on skill, not just ethnicity, broadening his support base.

His religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul – universal peace) included:

• Abolishing discriminatory taxes: He removed the jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims) and pilgrim taxes, fostering equality.
• Interfaith dialogue: He established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) where scholars from all religions debated, reflecting his quest for truth and understanding.
• Din-i-Ilahi: While not a new religion, it was a syncretic ethical system emphasizing universal virtues, symbolizing his desire for unity.
• Patronage and respect for all faiths: He supported Hindu temples, Jain monks, and Christian missionaries, and participated in Hindu festivals, demonstrating respect for diverse beliefs.

PQ. Shah Jahan’s reign marks the climax of the Mughal dynasty and  empire. In this context explain briefly:

(a) His Conquests.

(b) Magnificence of the Imperial Court and his Architecture. Achievements.

Ans:

Military Consolidation

While his reign didn’t see vast territorial expansion, Shah Jahan prioritized securing existing Mughal domains. He successfully incorporated Ahmadnagar by 1636 and compelled the Deccan sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda to accept Mughal supremacy. On the northwest frontier, he briefly recovered Kandahar in 1638, though it was ultimately lost to the Persians in 1649 after extensive campaigns. He also effectively suppressed internal revolts, strengthening imperial control.

Imperial Splendor and Architectural Legacy

Shah Jahan’s court was a spectacle of unparalleled opulence, celebrated for its extravagant ceremonies and the legendary Peacock Throne. He was a dedicated patron of arts, music, and literature, fostering a vibrant cultural environment.

His era is rightly hailed as the “Golden Age of Mughal Architecture,” characterized by a shift to white marble, intricate pietra dura inlay, and harmonious designs. Key architectural marvels include:

• Red Fort (Delhi): A magnificent fortress-palace in his new capital, Shahjahanabad, featuring exquisite structures like the Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas.
• Jama Masjid (Delhi): One of India’s largest and most imposing mosques, showcasing the era’s grand scale and refined aesthetic.

Question 3.

Aurangzeb died forlorn and destitute. In this context, explain briefly:

(a) His dealings with the Sikh

(b) His attempts to suppress rebellion in the Deccan.

Ans:

(a) Conflicts with the Sikhs:

• Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675): A turning point in Mughal-Sikh relations was Aurangzeb’s order for the execution of the Ninth Sikh Guru. This severe action, following the Guru’s steadfast refusal to convert to Islam, profoundly alienated the Sikh populace and became a deep-seated grievance that fueled subsequent animosity.
• Establishment of the Khalsa: In direct response to his father’s martyrdom, Guru Gobind Singh galvanized the Sikhs by forming the Khalsa in 1699. This transformation into a disciplined warrior fraternity initiated an enduring and resource-intensive period of conflict between the Mughal forces and the newly militarized Sikh community.

(b) Attempts to Subdue Deccan Rebellions:

• Annexation of Bijapur and Golconda (1686, 1687): Aurangzeb strategically absorbed the last two independent Deccan Sultanates. His objective was to eliminate any potential allies or sources of support for the increasingly powerful Maratha resistance.
• Relentless Maratha Guerrilla Warfare: The primary obstacle in the Deccan was the resilient Maratha movement. Under the leadership of figures like Shivaji, and later Sambhaji (whose execution by Aurangzeb in 1689 inadvertently strengthened Maratha resolve), and other dynamic chieftains, the Marathas masterfully employed guerrilla tactics. This protracted conflict, famously dubbed the “Deccan Ulcer,” consumed the last twenty-five years of Aurangzeb’s life and significantly depleted the empire’s financial and human reserves.

Question 4.

Describe the Mughal Administration under the following headlines:

(a) Position of the Monarch

(b) Main Departments of Government

Ans:

Here’s a rephrased summary of the Mughal administrative structure, aiming for uniqueness while maintaining clarity:

Mughal Administration: A Centralized System

(a) The Sovereign’s Authority

The Mughal emperor wielded absolute power, seeing himself as God’s chosen representative on Earth. As the ultimate authority, he commanded the military, dictated laws, executed policy, and served as the final arbiter of justice. Every governmental action stemmed from his decree, and the empire’s overall effectiveness and direction were directly shaped by his individual character and vision.

(b) Principal Administrative Divisions

To govern their expansive realm, the Mughals instituted several crucial departments, each headed by a minister directly answerable to the emperor:

• The Diwan (Diwan-i-Kul): This individual functioned as the Chief Financial Steward, overseeing the entire revenue collection process, managing the imperial treasury, and controlling all state income and expenditures.
• The Mir Bakshi: As the chief of military affairs, this official handled the recruitment, organization, record-keeping, and payment of the army, including the formidable forces maintained by the Mansabdars.

Question 5.

Describe the Mughal Administration with reference to the following:

(a) The Army and the Navy

(b) Administration of Law and Justice

Ans:

Here’s a brief overview of Mughal Administration:

(a) The Army and the Navy:

• Army: Dominated by the Mansabdari System, where officials (Mansabdars) maintained cavalry contingents based on their rank (Zat and Sawar). It was primarily a cavalry force, supported by infantry, elephants, and a powerful artillery. A smaller standing army (Ahadis) also existed.
• Navy: Relatively weak and riverine-focused, primarily for policing waterways, transport, and coastal defense. The Mir Bahri oversaw this small fleet. It lacked a strong ocean-going capability, a significant vulnerability.

(b) Administration of Law and Justice:

• Supreme Authority: The Emperor was the ultimate judge and court of appeal, often hearing cases personally.
• Hierarchy: Justice was administered through a hierarchy of courts: the Qazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Justice) at the imperial level, followed by Qazis at provincial and district levels. Local disputes often used traditional panchayats.
• Sources of Law: Primarily based on Islamic Law (Sharia), supplemented by royal decrees (Farmans) and local customary law (Riwaj), particularly for non-Muslim personal matters.
• Punishments: Included fixed penalties (Hudud), retaliation/compensation (Qisas), and discretionary punishments (Tazir).

PQ. Give an account of the social developments during the Mughal Age under the following headlines:

(a) Social Structure

(b) Position of Women

Ans:

Here’s a short account of social developments during the Mughal Age:

(a) Social Structure: Mughal society was highly hierarchical.

1. Ruling Class (Nobility/Umara): The emperor and powerful nobles (Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, Rajputs) enjoyed immense wealth and luxury, holding top military and administrative posts.
2. Clergy and Intelligentsia: Religious scholars (ulema, pandits) and learned individuals held social and religious influence.
3. Middle Class: A smaller group of merchants, traders, master craftsmen, and lower officials lived comfortably.
4. Peasantry and Artisans: The vast majority, mostly poor, engaged in agriculture or crafts, often facing heavy revenue demands.
5. Enslaved: A notable, though less visible, segment used for labor and domestic service. Society showed extreme wealth disparities and complex ethno-religious interactions.

(b) Position of Women: Women’s status varied greatly by class and religion, generally reflecting patriarchal norms but with notable exceptions.

• General: Widespread purdah (seclusion/veiling) for upper classes, common child marriage, and limited public roles. Sati was practiced among Hindus.
• Elite Women: Imperial women like Nur Jahan and Jahanara wielded significant political and economic influence, held Jagirs, patronized arts, and engaged in trade, often behind the scenes. Many were highly educated.
• Lower Strata Women: Experienced less strict purdah and actively participated in agricultural labor and household production, contributing to family income, though often enduring hardship. While legal rights (especially for Muslim women under Sharia) existed, practical limitations were common.

PQ. The Growing harmony between various religious communities was a marked feature of social life during the reigns of rulers from Akbar to Shah Jahan. In this context explain briefly:

(a) Growing harmony between Hindus and Muslims

(b) Growth of the Bhakti Movement and Sufism in the Mughal period.

Ans:

(a) Growing Harmony between Hindus and Muslims: This period saw increased integration driven by:

• Akbar’s Policies: His Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace), abolition of the jizya tax, and integration of Rajputs into high offices fostered equality and mutual respect.
• Cultural Synthesis: A natural blending of Persian, Islamic, and Indian traditions emerged in language (Urdu), architecture, music, and shared festivals, leading to a unique composite culture at various levels of society.

(b) Growth of the Bhakti Movement and Sufism: These popular religious movements significantly contributed to harmony by:

• Bhakti Movement: Emphasized devotion to a personal God, challenged caste barriers, and preached universal brotherhood (e.g., Kabir, Guru Nanak). Their message of equality and direct spirituality resonated across communities, often blurring Hindu-Muslim divides.
• Sufism: Their khanqahs (hospices) were open to all faiths, and their inclusive teachings and adoption of local customs promoted peace and understanding between communities.

Question 6.

Study the picture of the Red Ford and answer the following questions:

(a) Where is the Fort located ?

(b) Name the ruler who built it ?

(c) Mention two important buildings within its enclosure

(d) Mention three important features of the Fort

(e) Mention one occasion when the Fort is used by the Government of India

Ans:

The Red Fort: An Emblem of Mughal Grandeur

Here’s a concise summary of the Red Fort’s key attributes:

(a) Fort’s Geographical Position:  Red Fort  in Delhi, India.

(b) Imperial Patron of its Creation: This monumental fortress was conceived and brought to life under the patronage of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.

(c) Prominent Edifices within its Precincts: Within its imposing walls, two structures are particularly notable:

• The Diwan-i-Khas, the more exclusive Hall of Private Audience, was reserved for confidential meetings with dignitaries and senior officials.

(d) Defining Attributes of the Fortress: Three key characteristics underscore the Red Fort’s significance:

• Distinctive Red Sandstone Construction: Its most striking feature comprises its towering, extensive ramparts, primarily built from the characteristic red sandstone, which not only lends the fort its name but also its formidable visual impact.
• Strategic Natural Waterway Defense: Historically, its eastern flank was naturally protected by the Yamuna River, which acted as an inherent defensive moat, bolstering its strategic security.
• Harmonious Architectural Synthesis: The fort beautifully exemplifies a blend of diverse architectural traditions, seamlessly integrating Persian, Central Asian (Timurid), and various indigenous Indian design elements throughout its ornate palaces, gateways, and decorative patterns.

(e) Modern Governmental Utilization: The Red Fort holds deep national significance and is notably utilized by the Indian government on Independence Day (August 15th) each year. 

Question 7.

Identify the picture given below and answer the following question:

(a) Where is it located ?

(b) By whom was it built ?

(c) Name the architect who designed the monument

(d) Mention two architectural features of the monument.

Ans:

The Taj Mahal, located in Agra, India, is a renowned mausoleum and a pinnacle of Mughal architecture, built by Emperor Shah Jahan. Although many artisans contributed to its construction, Ustad Ahmed Lahori is credited as the principal architect.

The monument is celebrated for its distinctive architectural features:

• Symmetry and Proportion: The entire complex, including the main tomb, minarets, and surrounding buildings, is a masterpiece of symmetrical design. This bilateral symmetry creates a sense of harmony and balance.
• White Marble and Inlay: Constructed primarily from gleaming white marble, the Taj Mahal’s appearance changes throughout the day as the light shifts. The marble is meticulously adorned with pietra dura, a technique where thousands of semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli and jade are inlaid into the surface, creating intricate floral and calligraphic patterns.

Question 8.

The Mughal rulers of India were patrons of learning and scholars. In this context, describe briefly:

(a) The growth of Persian Literature in those times.

(b) The growth of Hindi Literature during the age of the Mughals.

Ans:

Here’s a condensed and unique summary of literary growth during the Mughal era:

Literary Flourishing in the Mughal Age

Mughal rulers, though primarily patrons of scholarship, fostered diverse literary developments across the empire.

(a) Persian Literature’s Ascendancy: As the official court language, Persian literature experienced a golden age under intense royal patronage. This era was marked by the proliferation of detailed historical chronicles (e.g., Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama, chronicles of Shah Jahan’s reign), serving as vital historical records. Imperial libraries also expanded, nurturing textual scholarship.

(b) Hindi Literature’s Development: Hindi literature, in its various dialects like Braj Bhasha and Awadhi, prospered largely through devotional movements and regional support, rather than direct imperial patronage. The Bhakti Movement was a primary driver, with influential figures like Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Surdas (Sursagar), Mirabai, and Kabir composing enduring spiritual works that often transcended religious boundaries. A distinct style of courtly aesthetic poetry (Ritikal) also emerged, patronized by local nobles. While royal Mughal interest in Hindi was present, it was typically indirect and less systematic compared to Persian.

Question 9.

What role did the following factors play in decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire:

(a) Aurangzeb’s policies.

(b) Incompetence of the Later Mughals.

(c) Foreign Invasions.

Ans:

The collapse of the Mughal Empire was a multifaceted process resulting from a confluence of internal decline and external threats. The empire’s downfall can be attributed to several key factors.

Aurangzeb’s Policies

Emperor Aurangzeb’s long reign marked a significant turning point. His departure from the religious tolerance of earlier emperors, such as Akbar, created widespread dissent. The re-imposition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims and the demolition of certain Hindu temples alienated key segments of the population, including the Rajputs and Sikhs, who had been pillars of imperial stability. Additionally, his protracted military campaigns in the Deccan to subdue the Marathas proved to be a costly strategic blunder.

Incompetence of Later Rulers

These later Mughals lacked the political acumen and military leadership of their predecessors. They became puppets in the hands of powerful nobles who engaged in destructive wars of succession. This constant infighting and the erosion of central authority led to widespread corruption and administrative decay. Provincial governors began to act independently, transforming their territories into de facto autonomous states and effectively dismembering the empire from within.

Foreign Invasions

The internal decay of the empire was catastrophically exposed by foreign invasions that stripped it of its wealth and prestige. In 1739, Nadir Shah of Persia invaded and sacked Delhi, carrying away immense treasures, including the Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond. This event shattered the illusion of Mughal power and left the empire financially crippled. Subsequently, repeated invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan further destabilized the empire, particularly in the northwest. These invasions not only plundered the remaining wealth but also crippled the military and administrative control over its frontiers, leaving the door open for the rise of the British East India Company.

Question 10.

Akbar was tbe greatest of all medieval rulers of India, In this context describe:

(a)

His Concern about Law and Justice

Ans:

He firmly believed that providing justice was a paramount duty of a sovereign, essential for the stability and legitimacy of his rule.

Here’s a brief description of his concern about Law and Justice:

• Supreme Judicial Authority: Akbar positioned himself as the ultimate dispenser of justice and the highest court of appeal in the empire. He saw it as his personal responsibility to ensure that justice was accessible to all his subjects.
• Direct Access and Regular Hearings: To fulfill this role, Akbar dedicated specific times and days for hearing cases and grievances directly. He would often appear during the Jharokha Darshan (daily public appearance) to receive petitions, or hold more formal court sessions where he would listen to complaints and issue judgments. This direct engagement ensured that even the common person could theoretically appeal to the emperor for redress.
• Emphasis on Impartiality: A hallmark of Akbar’s justice system was his strong emphasis on impartiality, regardless of religion, caste, or social status. He strove to ensure that justice was meted out fairly, not favoring Muslims over Hindus or nobles over commoners. 
• Streamlining the Judicial System: While the existing Islamic legal framework (Sharia) was generally followed, Akbar worked to make the administration of justice more efficient and less prone to corruption. He appointed Qazis (judges) at various levels (provincial, district) and emphasized their role in upholding law. He also appointed Mir Adls (officers responsible for carrying out court orders) to ensure that judgments were implemented.
• Encouragement of Reason and Equity: Akbar was known to engage in deep discussions about legal principles and even question established interpretations if they seemed unjust or contrary to reason. His approach was not purely dogmatic but sought to integrate principles of equity and good governance.
• Abolition of Harsh Practices: His concern for justice also manifested in the abolition of certain harsh or discriminatory practices, such as the enslavement of prisoners of war and their families, reflecting a more humane approach to justice.

Question 11.

Describe Aurangzeb’s Administration under the following headlines:

A Setback to the Policy of Religious Toleration Provincial Government

Ans:

Aurangzeb’s administrative approach (1658-1707) marked a distinct departure, particularly in religious affairs, from his predecessors.

(a) Shift in Religious Toleration Policy

 His actions included:

• Reinstatement of the jizya, a capitation tax on non-Muslims, which caused significant resentment among Hindu communities.
• Sanctioning the destruction of certain Hindu temples and imposing restrictions on public celebrations of Hindu festivals.
• Promoting a stricter adherence to Islamic orthodoxy, including the appointment of muhtasibs (officials enforcing moral conduct). These measures ignited widespread revolts and severely depleted the empire’s financial and human resources.

(b) Provincial Governance Structure

Aurangzeb maintained a meticulously centralized provincial governance structure. The empire was systematically organized into subahs (provinces), which were further segmented into sarkars (districts), and then into parganas (sub-districts).

Key provincial officials held distinct responsibilities:

• The Subahdar, or provincial governor, was responsible for maintaining regional law and order and commanding the provincial military forces.
• The Diwan, acting as the provincial finance minister, managed all revenue collection and expenditures, reporting directly to the imperial Diwan.
• Other crucial functionaries included the Provincial Bakshi (military paymaster), the Sadr (administrator of religious grants), and the Qazi (judicial officer).

This system of inter-departmental accountability, where provincial officers were answerable to their respective central departments, was designed to prevent regional governors from accumulating undue power. However, the system’s overall efficiency was often strained by the empire’s persistent military engagements.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS

Short Answer Questions:

Question 1.
Name two important sources which provide information about the Mughals.
Ans:

1. Court Chronicles and Autobiographies: These are primary sources written by imperial historians or the emperors themselves, offering detailed insights into political events, administration, court life, and socio-economic conditions.
   
   • Examples: The Akbarnama by Abul Fazl (a comprehensive history of Akbar’s reign), the Baburnama (Babur’s autobiography), and the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Jahangir’s autobiography).
2. Accounts of Foreign Travelers: Numerous European travelers visited India during the Mughal period and recorded their observations. While sometimes colored by personal biases, their accounts provide valuable external perspectives on Mughal society, administration, economy, and court life.
   
   • Examples: The writings of Francois Bernier (a French physician who traveled during Aurangzeb’s reign) and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (a French gem merchant).

Question 2.

Name of the author of Ain-i-Akbari.

Ans:

Abul Fazl.

Question 3.

What was the title of the Mahabharata translated into Persian ?

Ans:

The Mahabharata, when translated into Persian during Emperor Akbar’s reign, was titled Razmnama (or Razm-nama).

It literally means “Book of Wars” or “Book of Battles.”

Question 4.

Who was the architect who designed Humayun’s tomb?

Ans:

Mirak Mirza Ghiyas.

Question 5.

Who built the Agra Fort ?

Ans:

The Construction of Agra Fort

The monumental Agra Fort predominantly owes its existence to the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Although the site contained pre-existing structures, Akbar commenced the extensive construction of the formidable red sandstone fortress that largely stands today, with work beginning around 1565. Later emperors, notably Shah Jahan, further enhanced and modified the fort with their own architectural contributions.

Question 6.

Name two buildings located in Fatehpur Sikri.

Ans:

Two prominent buildings located in Fatehpur Sikri are:

1. Buland Darwaza: This massive gateway is one of the tallest in the world and serves as the southern entrance to the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri. 
2. Panch Mahal: A unique five-storied palace, diminishing in size as it ascends. It’s an open-sided pavilion, primarily built for the royal ladies to enjoy fresh air and views, showcasing an interesting blend of architectural influences.

Question 7.

Why did Akbar build Fatehpur Sikri ?

Ans:

Here’s a very concise summary of why Akbar established Fatehpur Sikri:

Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri primarily out of gratitude to Sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chishti, whose blessings were associated with the birth of his son, Salim. He also sought a new capital that could be designed from scratch to embody his unique administrative and architectural vision, providing a strategic location and a fresh start for his consolidating empire.

Question 8.

Between whom was the First Battle of Panipat fought ?

Ans:

The Combatants of the First Battle of Panipat

The pivotal clash historically recognized as the First Battle of Panipat occurred between Babur, the nascent founder of what would become the Mughal Empire, and Ibrahim Lodi, the then-incumbent Sultan of Delhi.

Question 9.

Who invited Babur to India ? Why ?

Ans:

Babur’s Arrival in India: An Invited Incursion

Babur’s entry into India was prompted by calls from several disaffected regional strongmen, rather than a singular invitation.

Key figures extending these appeals included:

• Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, seeking relief from Sultan Ibrahim Lodi’s oppressive reign.
• Alam Khan Lodi, Ibrahim’s own uncle, who coveted the Delhi throne.

Their core motivation was political self-interest: each saw Babur as a temporary agent to destabilize or oust Ibrahim Lodi, expecting this would clear the way for their own territorial or political dominance. They fundamentally misjudged Babur’s ultimate goal of establishing a permanent empire.

Question 10.

Who was defeated by Akbar at the Battle of Haldighati in 1576 ?

Ans:

Result of the 1576 Battle of Haldighati

The decisive Battle of Haldighati in 1576 concluded with Maharana Pratap of Mewar being overcome by the forces of the Mughal Empire. 

Question 11.

Mention any two steps taken by Akbar to promote better understanding between the Hindus and the Muslims.

Ans:

Akbar implemented several key policies to promote religious harmony and understanding between Hindus and Muslims, moving away from the more traditional, exclusionary practices of earlier rulers. His reforms focused on eliminating discrimination and encouraging open dialogue.

Abolition of Discriminatory Taxes

He eliminated the Jizya, a poll tax on non-Muslims, in 1564. He also did away with the pilgrim tax levied on Hindu devotees visiting their holy sites. These actions were more than just financial relief; they were a powerful statement that all subjects, regardless of their faith, were equal in the eyes of the emperor.

Policy of Sulh-i-Kul and Interfaith Dialogue

To put this idea into practice, he built the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri. Here, he hosted discussions and debates with scholars, saints, and philosophers from various faiths, including Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism.

Question 12.

Name the two taxes abolished by Akbar.

Ans:

Emperor Akbar eliminated a pair of significant imposts that had historically weighed upon particular segments of the population:

1. The Jizya: This was a per capita tax that had traditionally been collected from non-Muslim inhabitants residing within territories under Islamic governance.
2. The Pilgrimage Levy: This represented a specific charge applied to Hindus undertaking travels to their revered holy sites.

Question 13.

Name the Mughal ruler who forbade the evil practice of Sati.

Ans:

Emperor Akbar was the Mughal sovereign who vehemently opposed and actively sought to suppress the malevolent custom of Sati. While he did not succeed in entirely eradicating the practice, he instituted crucial administrative measures to prevent forced Sati and mandated official authorization for any instance to occur. He frequently intervened personally to halt such acts.

Question 14.

What principles did Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi promote ?

Ans:

1. Monotheism (Tauhid-i-Ilahi): A strong belief in one God, emphasizing the unity of the divine across all faiths.
2. Universal Harmony (Sulh-i-Kul): It promoted the idea of absolute peace and tolerance among all religions, rejecting religious dogma, sectarianism, and fanaticism.
3. Virtues and Ethics: It emphasized a moral code based on virtues like piety, prudence, temperance, justice, honesty, kindness, and compassion.
4. Ahimsa (Non-violence): It discouraged cruelty to animals and prohibited the consumption of meat on certain days, showing an influence of Jain and Hindu principles.
5. Loyalty to the Emperor: Adherents were expected to show supreme loyalty to the Emperor, who was seen as the spiritual guide and “Perfect Man.”
6. Renunciation of Worldly Desires (to some extent): It encouraged a degree of asceticism and detachment from excessive worldly desires.

Question 15.

When and for what purpose did Akbar built the Ibadat Khana?

Ans:

Its primary purpose was to facilitate discussions and debates among scholars and religious leaders of different faiths. Akbar, driven by his quest for religious truth and understanding, sought to learn about the doctrines and philosophies of various religions. Initially, it was open only to Muslim theologians, but by 1578, he opened it to representatives from Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and even atheists, promoting interfaith dialogue and contributing to his policy of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace).

Question 16.

Name the Mughal ruler whose reign was famous for ‘Chain of Justice’.

Ans:

The Mughal ruler whose reign was famous for the ‘Chain of Justice’ (Zanjir-i-Adl) was Jahangir.

The purpose was to allow any aggrieved subject to ring the bells and directly appeal to the emperor for justice, bypassing corrupt or slow officials.

Question 17.

Name the two important centers of’trade during the Mughal Period.

Ans:

During the Mughal Period, India had a highly developed and extensive trade network, both inland and overseas. While many cities played a significant role, two particularly important centers of trade were:

1. Surat (Gujarat): Located on the west coast, Surat was a major port city and a bustling hub for international trade, especially with Europe, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. It was renowned for its textile industry, particularly cotton and silk, and served as a crucial entry point for imported goods (like bullion) and a major出口 port for Indian commodities.
   
2. Agra (Uttar Pradesh): Situated inland, Agra was a key center for internal trade and a manufacturing hub. It was well-connected to various regions of the empire through a vast network of roads and rivers. Agra was known for its indigo production, textiles, and served as a distribution center for goods from other parts of North India. It also had strong trading links with port cities like Surat and played a vital role in the overland trade routes.

Question 18.

Mention any two measures which indicate Nur Jahan’s important position during Jahangir’s reign.

Ans:

Here are two significant measures that indicate her important standing:

1. Issuing Farmans (Royal Decrees) and Having Coins Struck in Her Name: This was a highly unusual and symbolic demonstration of imperial authority, traditionally reserved only for the emperor. The fact that Nur Jahan’s name appeared on official decrees alongside Jahangir’s, and that gold and silver coins were minted bearing her name, clearly indicates her co-sovereign status and immense political power.
   
2. Active Participation in Administration and State Affairs: Nur Jahan was not merely a ceremonial figure. She actively engaged in the daily administration of the empire, holding informal courts, receiving petitions, and making decisions on important state matters. She was deeply involved in political appointments, foreign policy, and even military strategies. Her influence was so profound that many historians consider her the de facto ruler for much of Jahangir’s later reign, especially as his health declined.

Question 19.

Name the two English, ambassadors who came to Jahangir’s court. Who sent them and for what ?

Ans:

The two prominent English ambassadors to the Mughal court of Emperor Jahangir were Captain William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe. Their missions, though similar in goal, had different outcomes and played a crucial role in the early history of the English East India Company (EIC) in India.

Captain William Hawkins (1608-1609)

• Who Sent Him? Hawkins was sent by the English East India Company. While he carried letters from King James I, his primary mission was commercial, representing the EIC’s interests.
• His Mission: Although he initially earned favor with Jahangir, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful due to the strong opposition from the Portuguese, who already had an established presence and influence at the court.

Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619)

• Who Sent Him? His diplomatic status gave him more authority and leverage.
• His Mission: Roe’s objective was to secure a comprehensive commercial treaty and trade rights for the English. He was a skilled diplomat who patiently worked to counter the influence of the Portuguese. His persistence paid off, and in 1618, he successfully obtained a firman from Jahangir. This granted the English the right to trade and establish factories at Surat and other locations, a pivotal moment in the EIC’s rise and the eventual establishment of British rule in India.

Question 20.

Between whom was the Third Battle of Panipat fought ? Who emerged victorious in the battle ?

Ans:

The climactic Third Battle of Panipat pitted the formidable Maratha Empire against a powerful confederacy commanded by Ahmad Shah Durrani, the Afghan monarch often referred to as Ahmad Shah Abdali. This decisive defeat inflicted a severe blow upon the Maratha dominance, fundamentally reshaping the geopolitical dynamics of the Indian subcontinent.

Question 21.

Name the title given to the heads of the revenue department and the military department respectively in the Mughal Empire.

Ans:

In the Mughal Empire’s administrative framework, Diwan-i-Ala served as the head of the revenue department. This individual was responsible for the empire’s financial matters, including supervising the land revenue system, controlling expenditures, and managing the state treasury.

Meanwhile, Mir Bakshi was the principal officer of the military department. This position was in charge of recruitment, organizing the army, and paying the soldiers. Mir Bakshi was not the commander-in-chief, but rather the administrative head of the military, overseeing promotions, mansabdari rankings, and the court’s intelligence gathering.

Question 22.

Who were mansabdars ? How were they paid ?

Ans:

Mansabdars were individuals holding a numerical rank (mansab) in the Mughal Empire, indicating their status, salary, and military obligations (number of cavalrymen to maintain).

They were primarily paid in two ways:

1. Cash payments directly from the imperial treasury.
2. More commonly, through Jagirs, which were revenue assignments (right to collect revenue from a specified area) rather than land ownership. These jagirs were frequently transferred.

Structured Questions

1. With reference to the Mughal Empire, explain briefly the significance of the following:
Question 1(a) .
Ain-i-Akbari.
Ans:

The Ain-i-Akbari, authored by Abul Fazl, was a pivotal historical text of the Mughal Empire, forming the final part of the Akbarnama.

Its significance lies in being a comprehensive administrative and statistical record of Emperor Akbar’s reign. It meticulously details the Mughal administrative system, including land revenue (Zabti/Dahsala) and military organization (Mansabdari), alongside extensive economic data on revenues, crops, and prices. Beyond administration, it offers valuable insights into the diverse society, culture, and religious practices of the time, even covering aspects of the imperial court. The text not only reflects Akbar’s vision for a centralized and tolerant empire but also stands as an indispensable primary source for modern historians studying the social, economic, and administrative facets of the Mughal Empire.

Question 1(b).

Monuments at Fatehpur Sikri.

Ans:

The monuments at Fatehpur Sikri hold immense significance in the Mughal Empire for several key reasons:

• Akbar’s Visionary Capital: They represent Emperor Akbar’s ambitious endeavor to create a new, grand capital city, conceived as a testament to his power, vision, and spiritual quest. Though short-lived due to water scarcity, it was designed as the empire’s political, cultural, and religious hub.
• Architectural Synthesis: The structures, such as the Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, and Jodha Bai’s Palace, are a brilliant fusion of diverse architectural styles, notably Indian (especially Gujarati and Rajput), Persian, and Central Asian. This unique blend vividly reflects Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul) and his appreciation for various cultures, integrating them into a distinctive Mughal architectural idiom.
• Symbol of Mughal Grandeur: The sheer scale, intricate carvings, and use of rich red sandstone showcase the pinnacle of Mughal architectural splendor during Akbar’s reign, designed to impress and symbolize the empire’s vast power and wealth.
• Reflection of Religious Pluralism: Buildings like the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship), where Akbar held interfaith discussions, and the integration of Hindu motifs into palace designs, underscore his commitment to fostering religious harmony and intellectual discourse within his court.

2. With reference to the Mughal rule, state briefly:

Question 2(a).

Akbar’s policy towards the Rajputs.

Ans:

Its core features included:

Matrimonial Alliances: He fostered alliances through strategic marriages with Rajput princesses, allowing them to retain their Hindu faith and influencing a more inclusive court culture.

Religious Tolerance & Autonomy: Akbar abolished discriminatory taxes like jizyah and pilgrimage tax, showing religious tolerance. He also largely respected the internal autonomy of Rajput states that accepted his suzerainty, refraining from direct interference in their local affairs.

Question 2(b).

Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance.

Ans:

He actively sought to foster harmony among diverse religious groups in his empire, moving away from discriminatory practices. Key aspects included:

• Interfaith Dialogue: He established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri, inviting scholars from various religions (Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, etc.) for open discussions and debates.
• Merit-based Appointments: He appointed individuals to high administrative and military positions based on merit, not religion, including many Hindus (like Raja Man Singh and Todar Mal).
• Respect for all faiths: He allowed non-Muslims freedom to practice their religion, build temples, and participate in imperial festivals.
• Din-i-Ilahi: He even attempted to synthesize the best aspects of different faiths into a new spiritual path called Din-i-Ilahi, emphasizing universal brotherhood and divine unity, though it gained few followers.

3. With reference to the administrative system in the Mughal Period, answer the following questions:

Question 3(a) .

What was the position of the monarch ?

Ans:

In the Mughal Empire, the monarch held a position of unparalleled authority and unquestionable dominance, effectively embodying a system of absolute monarchy. Their standing can be summarized as follows:

• Divinely Sanctioned Power: Emperors, particularly from Akbar’s era onward, cultivated the belief that their rule was a direct manifestation of divine will. Court chroniclers like Abul Fazl articulated this, portraying the emperor as a “farr-i-izadi” (divine light) or God’s representative on Earth, imbuing their reign with sacred legitimacy.
  
• Ultimate Control Across Domains: The emperor served as the supreme head across all governmental spheres:
  
  • Executive Authority: They possessed the final say in all major policy decisions, the issuance of imperial mandates (farmans), and held the sole prerogative to appoint, elevate, or dismiss any official within the vast empire.
  • Legislative Power: The emperor’s pronouncements held the force of law, making them the ultimate legislator.
• Centralized Administration: While a sophisticated administrative machinery with various ministers (like the Diwan, Mir Bakshi, and Mir Saman) existed, their roles were entirely subordinate to the emperor. The monarch maintained tight control, preventing any single official or noble from accumulating enough power to challenge the imperial center.
  
• Paternalistic Ideal (Theoretical): Emperors often projected an image of benevolent and protective rule, viewing their subjects with a fatherly concern, regardless of religious or ethnic background. 
• Symbol of Unity: In a diverse empire encompassing numerous cultures and faiths, the monarch served as the quintessential unifying symbol, binding together disparate regions and communities under a singular, overarching authority.
  

Question 3(b).

Who were the three important ministers ?

Ans:

In the highly centralized Mughal administration, the emperor, while holding ultimate authority, relied on a core trio of ministers to manage the empire’s vast affairs. These pivotal roles were:

• The Diwan (or Diwan-i-Ala)
• The Mir Bakshi
• The Mir Saman

Question 3(c).

How was the provincial government organised ?

Ans:

The Mughal Empire’s provincial governance was a well-structured system, essentially a smaller version of the central administration, designed to extend imperial authority throughout the realm.

Organization of Provincial Government

At the provincial level, key officials were appointed directly by the emperor but with a built-in system of checks and balances:

• Subahdar (Governor): The chief executive and military head of the province, acting as the emperor’s direct representative, responsible for law and order.
• Provincial Diwan: Managed the province’s finances and revenue. Crucially, this official reported directly to the central Diwan, not the Subahdar, preventing the governor from controlling all provincial resources.
• Provincial Bakshi: Headed the military and acted as paymaster for the provincial army. Similar to the Diwan, he reported directly to the central Mir Bakshi, ensuring the emperor’s continued military oversight.
• Other officials like the Sadr (religious/judicial head), Qazi (chief judge), Faujdar (district law enforcement), Amalguzar (district revenue collector), and Kotwal (city police chief) further streamlined administration at various levels.

System of Checks and Balances

The brilliance of this setup lay in the direct accountability of the Provincial Diwan and Bakshi to their central counterparts. This strategic separation of powers ensured no single provincial official, particularly the Subahdar, could amass unchecked authority, thereby maintaining tight imperial control over the vast empire.

4. With reference to Mansabdari system, answer the following questions:

Question 4(a).

What was the Mansabdari system

Ans:

Taking its name from the Arabic word “mansab,” meaning ‘rank’ or ‘position,’ this pioneering system assigned a numerical grade to every official across the Mughal’s civil and military spectrum, from the lowest office-holder to the most distinguished noble.

This allocated rank intrinsically shaped three fundamental dimensions of an individual’s imperial function:

• Hierarchical Standing: It fixed their place within the administrative pecking order and their ceremonial seniority at the royal court.
• Emoluments: It precisely determined the compensation or wages they were authorized to receive.
• Martial Obligation: It stipulated the specific count of cavalry soldiers (and their accompanying horses) the Mansabdar was duty-bound to maintain and provide for state service.

Each Mansabdar possessed a dual classification:

• Zat: This element designated the officer’s personal status and governed their individual remuneration.
• Sawar: This denoted the exact contingent of mounted troops the Mansabdar was required to supply to the imperial army.

Question 4(b).

What was meant by zat and sawar rank ?

Ans:

In the sophisticated Mansabdari system of the Mughal Empire, an official’s status and responsibilities were intricately defined by a dual numerical ranking: Zat and Sawar.

A higher Zat number conferred greater prestige within the court and a corresponding personal salary, intended to support their lifestyle and household.

Conversely, the Sawar rank precisely stipulated the contingent of mounted soldiers (cavalrymen) that a Mansabdar was obligated to maintain and provide for imperial service. The compensation for sustaining these troops was disbursed to the Mansabdar in accordance with their Sawar rating.

5. With reference to the social development during the Mughal Age, answer the following question:

Question 5(a).

Explain the division of society on the basis of wealth.

Ans:

The Mughal Empire was marked by a significant social divide based on wealth, creating a highly stratified society. This class structure can be understood by examining three main groups: the wealthy elite, the middle class, and the impoverished masses.

The Wealthy Elite

At the top of the social hierarchy was a small but extremely powerful group that included the Emperor, the royal family, and high-ranking nobles, known as Mansabdars. These individuals lived a life of extraordinary luxury, residing in lavish palaces and havelis filled with expensive textiles, jewelry, and foreign goods. Their wealth was primarily derived from jagir (land revenue assignments) and control over trade. Their opulent spending fueled the luxury goods market but also created a vast chasm between them and the rest of society.

The Middle Class

This group included lower-level officials, prosperous merchants, skilled artisans, and professionals like doctors and teachers. They lived comfortably but without the extreme extravagance of the elite. While their homes and possessions were modest in comparison, they enjoyed a lifestyle significantly better than the poor. The economic activities of this class contributed to the dynamism of urban centers and served as a link between producers and the wealthy consumers.

The Poor and Laboring Masses

This group represented the vast majority of the population and included peasants, agricultural laborers, and ordinary artisans. Their lives were generally defined by hardship and subsistence living. Peasants, who were the economic backbone of the empire, often had to surrender a large portion of their crops as land revenue, leaving them with just enough to survive, and sometimes not even that during times of famine. Artisans and laborers worked for meager wages and lived in simple huts or crowded tenements, making them highly vulnerable to economic instability. 

Question 5(b).

Explain briefly any two steps taken by Akbar towards integrating the Hindus and the Muslims.

Ans:

Here are two key actions taken by Emperor Akbar to bridge the divide between Hindus and Muslims in his extensive empire:

1. Abolition of Discriminatory Taxation: Akbar notably abolished the jizya, a per capita tax traditionally imposed on non-Muslims, and also lifted the pilgrim tax that Hindus were required to pay for visiting their holy sites. This measure was crucial for fostering a sense of equity and mitigating financial hardship for his Hindu subjects. By eliminating these levies, Akbar clearly signaled his dedication to religious equality and ensuring that individuals were not penalized based on their religious affiliation.
2. Cultivation of Interfaith Dialogue and Sulh-i-Kul: Akbar actively pursued a policy of Sulh-i-Kul, meaning “universal peace,” which aimed to create harmony among different religious communities. This dedicated space served as a forum where scholars, mystics, and religious figures from various faiths—including Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Jainism—were invited to engage in open discussions and debates about their respective doctrines. While these deliberations could be vigorous, their primary goal was to foster mutual understanding and intellectual exchange, thereby contributing to a more tolerant and integrated society within the Mughal Empire.

Question 5(c).

What steps were taken by the Mughal rulers to promote education ?

Ans:

Mughal rulers promoted education by:

• Establishing and funding maktabs (elementary schools) and madrasas (higher education institutions).
• Broadening the curriculum beyond religious studies to include subjects like mathematics, astronomy, logic, history, and administration (especially under Akbar).
• Sponsoring translations of texts from various languages into Persian.
• Promoting inclusivity by encouraging the study of diverse subjects and, at times, opening educational opportunities to both Hindus and Muslims, and providing some education for women, especially within royal households.