“Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies” examines India from 600 BCE to 600 CE, a time of major political, social, and economic change. It covers the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas and the Mauryan Empire (with its administration under Chandragupta and Ashoka), the sources for understanding this period (inscriptions, texts, archaeology), agrarian society and land grants, the growth of towns and trade (including coinage and connections with Central Asia and Rome), the rise of crafts and guilds, and the political landscape after the Mauryas (including the Shungas, Kushanas, and Satavahanas), emphasizing regional diversity and ongoing state and economic development.
Exercise
1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Ans:
Concise dedicatory inscriptions naming professions like launderers, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, and blacksmiths further confirm specialized crafts. Texts also allude to guilds that governed production processes, acquired raw materials, and facilitated the sale of finished goods.
This contrasts with the evidence from Harappan urban centers, which relies almost exclusively on archaeological findings. Excavations have uncovered workshops, unprocessed materials (like stone nodules and copper ore), tools, incomplete items, and manufacturing debris at production sites. While Harappan artifacts demonstrate advanced techniques and standardization (for instance, in pottery, bricks, and weights), there is an absence of written records such as inscriptions directly identifying craftspeople or guilds. Moreover, while some Harappan crafts, such as seal carving and carnelian bead making, may have been localized, clear indications of formally structured guilds akin to the Early Historic period are lacking. Finally, Early Historic cities saw the emergence of iron tool production, a technology largely absent in the Harappan Civilization, which primarily utilized copper and bronze.
2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.
Ans:
The Mahajanapadas (c. 600-300 BCE) were strong early Indian states, mostly monarchies but some oligarchies (ganas/sanghas), featuring fortified capitals with large walls, standing armies, and developing bureaucracies funded by taxes on agriculture, crafts, and trade. Coinage, often punch-marked silver, facilitated commerce. Competition and conflicts for land and power among these states ultimately led to the rise of larger empires like the Mauryan Empire.
3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Ans:
Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people by synthesizing fragmented evidence from various sources, as common individuals typically didn’t leave extensive written records. Archaeological evidence, including house remains, pottery, tools, and everyday items, suggests social stratification, occupations, agricultural practices, and diet. Literary traditions like folk tales and religious texts offer glimpses into beliefs and customs, though requiring careful interpretation. Inscriptions, often from elites, can occasionally mention ordinary people’s occupations or donations. Oral traditions, while evolving, can preserve community memories and practices. By cross-referencing these diverse and limited sources, historians attempt to create a picture of daily life, social structures, economic activities, and beliefs, acknowledging the inherent challenges due to a lack of direct evidence.
4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences?
Ans:
Source 3, from the Silappadikaram, details a diverse array of gifts presented to the Pandyan chief Senguttuvan during a forest visit. These offerings span luxury goods like ivory and fragrant wood, everyday items such as honey and sandalwood, agricultural produce including coconuts and mangoes, and even exotic live animals like baby tigers and elephants. The nature of this list suggests tributes or valuable trade goods reflecting regional specialties and the richness of the environment.
These exemptions focus on relieving the village from obligations to supply resources to royal officials, such as grass, animal hides, and charcoal, as well as from royal prerogatives concerning the purchase. This list highlights the essential resources present within the village and the economic relief provided by these exemptions, emphasizing basic necessities and local products.
In essence, while both sources list natural resources, their context and purpose differ significantly. Source 3 showcases a wide variety of often valuable and exotic items as gifts or tributes, indicative of regional wealth and trade. Source 8, conversely, focuses on the practical resources of a village and the exemptions granted from providing them, underscoring local livelihoods and economic considerations. A minor overlap exists in the mention or implication of agricultural produce, though presented in the contrasting contexts of tribute and exempted provisions.
5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Ans:
Epigraphists encounter several hurdles when studying inscriptions. Poor preservation due to damage makes reading incomplete or impossible. Fading or illegible script, along with varying ancient writing styles and lack of punctuation, complicates decipherment. Language barriers arise from inscriptions being in extinct or poorly understood languages, requiring complex decipherment. Contextual loss during discovery hinders interpretation of purpose and significance. Subjectivity in interpretation can lead to differing scholarly understandings of the same text. The work is time and resource intensive, demanding specialized knowledge and access. Finally, limited evidence can provide a biased view of the past, focusing on specific groups or events.
6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Ans:
A well-organized bureaucracy managed revenue, the large standing army, and justice, supported by an espionage network and efficient communication via roads and messengers.
Asokan inscriptions I’ve studied illustrate this centralized rule, with Asoka directly addressing subjects through edicts promoting dhamma (righteous conduct) as a tool for social cohesion and moral governance. The appointment of dhamma-mahamattas highlights the bureaucratic reach into provinces for propagating dhamma and ensuring justice. Asoka’s focus on welfare measures demonstrates the state’s role beyond control and revenue. While not detailing the entire bureaucracy or military, the inscriptions clearly show the ruler’s authority and policy implementation across a large territory, indicating a robust administrative system.
7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.
Ans:
D.C. Sircar’s observation underscores the comprehensive reflection of Indian life found within inscriptions. Royal decrees unveil political and administrative structures, land grant records illuminate economic and social dynamics, and votive inscriptions shed light on religious customs. Furthermore, inscriptions furnish chronological data, lineage information, and linguistic nuances, offering unmediated perspectives from the past.
While acknowledging their limitations, such as a potential overrepresentation of elite viewpoints and incomplete coverage of all facets of daily existence, alongside the necessity of expert interpretation, Sircar’s central argument remains sound. Inscriptions provide a broad and direct window into India’s history, encompassing a diverse array of life, culture, and activities, thereby establishing their critical importance as primary historical sources.
8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Ans:
Following the Mauryan era, kingship witnessed rulers asserting divine status, evidenced by the Kushana title “Devaputra” and the use of halo imagery. Royal support of various religions, including Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Jainism, became a significant means of establishing legitimacy. The concept of warrior kingship, emphasizing military power and territorial dominance, is exemplified by the Satavahanas’ military engagements. Lineage and legitimacy were underscored, with the Satavahanas employing matronymics and inscriptions highlighting dynastic heritage. The consolidation of kingdoms also fostered the emergence of regional identities through the patronage of local cultures.
These evolving concepts of kingship diverged from the more centralized Mauryan model, indicating a transition towards an emphasis on divine association, religious endorsement, military prowess, the assertion of lineage.
9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
Ans:
Agricultural practices saw major changes (600 BCE – 600 CE) with the spread of the iron ploughshare, boosting yields, especially in fertile areas. Irrigation systems like wells, tanks, and canals were developed, with the Grand Anicut as a key example. Paddy transplantation increased productivity in some regions. New crops and some agricultural specialization emerged due to trade. Land grants also influenced agricultural management. These transformations, though uneven, significantly increased agricultural output, supporting population growth and urbanization.
