The chapter “Through the Eyes of Travellers – Perceptions of Society” from the Class 12 NCERT History book highlights how foreign travellers who visited India between the 10th and 17th centuries described Indian society, culture, and economy. These travellers came from different regions such as China, Central Asia, the Arab world, and Europe. Their writings provide important historical information and help us understand how India appeared to outsiders. Al-Biruni, a Persian scholar who came to India in the 11th century, wrote ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ and admired Indian knowledge systems but struggled to understand the caste system. Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveller who visited India in the 14th century during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s rule, documented the vibrant urban life, trade, and social practices of that time. Francois Bernier, a French doctor and traveller in the 17th century during the Mughal Empire, criticized Indian society and compared it negatively to Europe, especially pointing out the absence of private property and flaws in the land revenue system. The chapter also discusses how these travellers observed various aspects of Indian life, such as caste, religion, cities, economic activities, and governance. Although their accounts are valuable, they must be read with care, keeping in mind the cultural backgrounds and personal biases of the travellers. Overall, their writings offer a unique and rich perspective on Indian society during the medieval period.
If he had knowledge of an early form of Turkish, he might also find common ground in Turkey and Central Asian countries, where Turkic languages are spoken, although they have evolved over time.
In summary, Al-Biruni could be easily understood in the modern-day Middle East, Iran, India, Pakistan, and parts of Central Asia, due to his multilingual abilities and cultural knowledge.
Exercise
Answer in 100-150 words
1. Write a note on the Kitab-ul-Hind.
Ans:
Al-Biruni, an 11th-century Persian scholar, penned the renowned Kitab-ul-Hind after immersing himself in Indian culture. Learning Sanskrit and studying local texts, he meticulously documented Indian philosophy, science, and customs, drawing comparisons with Greek and Arab knowledge. Uniquely, his work offered a respectful and clear explanation of Indian beliefs, aiming to bridge cultural understanding. Kitab-ul-Hind stands as a valuable historical account, showcasing Al-Biruni’s intellectual curiosity and his dedication to connecting different cultures through knowledge.
2. Compare and contrast the perspectives from which Ibn Battuta and Bernier wrote their accounts of their travels in India.
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Ibn Battuta excitedly shared his firsthand experiences of India’s marvels, whereas François Bernier offered a more critical, analytical view of Indian society and its leaders, often finding it lacking compared to Europe.
3. Discuss the picture of urban centres that emerges from Bernier’s account.
Ans:
He described cities like Delhi and Agra as large, bustling, and full of activity, with grand forts, royal palaces, and busy markets. However, he was also critical of their structure and organization. He observed that many buildings were made of mud and appeared temporary and poorly built, which gave the cities an unplanned and unstable look. Bernier believed that the frequent movement of the Mughal court from one place to another prevented the permanent growth and development of urban centres. Unlike European cities, which he viewed as more stable and better organized, he felt Indian cities lacked long-term planning. He also pointed out the wide gap between the rich and poor, where a small elite lived in great luxury while the majority lived in poverty. His writings offer both admiration and criticism, painting a complex picture of urban life in Mughal India.
4. Analyse the evidence for slavery provided by Ibn Battuta.
Ans:
Ibn Battuta’s writings offer clear evidence of the existence and acceptance of slavery in 14th-century India. During his stay at the court of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq, he observed that keeping slaves was a common practice among the wealthy and powerful. Both men and women were enslaved, and they were often given as gifts by nobles and kings, showing that slaves were treated as valuable possessions. Ibn Battuta mentioned that slaves were used not only for domestic chores but also for military and administrative purposes. He himself received slaves during his visit, which highlights how widespread and normalized slavery was in elite circles. His account shows that a person’s social status was often linked to the number of slaves they owned. Overall, Ibn Battuta’s observations reveal how deeply rooted the system of slavery was in the social and political fabric of medieval Indian society.
5. What were the elements of the practice of sati that drew the attention of Bernier?
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Bernier was deeply disturbed by the practice of sati that he witnessed during his travels in India in the 17th century. He described how widows were expected to burn themselves on their husband’s funeral pyres, sometimes willingly but often under pressure from family or religious customs. What stood out to him was the way the ritual was carried out in public, with large crowds watching and religious leaders overseeing the event. Bernier was particularly troubled by the emotional state of the widows and questioned whether they truly had a choice. He viewed the practice as cruel and inhumane, especially from his European perspective, where such customs were unheard of. His account reflects his concern for the condition of women and his critical view of certain traditions in Indian society.
Write a short essay (about 250-300 words) on the following:
6. Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism.
Ans:
Sufism: Major Beliefs and Practices
Sufism is a mystical branch of Islam that focuses on the inner and spiritual aspects of the faith. It encourages a personal and emotional bond with God, rather than following only outward rituals. The followers of Sufism, known as Sufis, believe that the path to God lies in purifying the heart, controlling the ego, and living a life filled with love, kindness, and humility.
One of the key beliefs in Sufism is the oneness of God (Tawheed), and the idea that God can be experienced directly through deep devotion and spiritual practice. They practice dhikr, which means remembering God through the repetition of His names, often in a rhythmic or meditative way. Music, poetry, and dance are also used in some Sufi traditions, such as sama, to help reach a state of spiritual awakening.
Another important feature of Sufism is the guidance of a spiritual teacher or murshid, who leads the disciples (murids) on their journey to spiritual understanding. Sufi saints, known as pirs or walis, are respected for their wisdom, and their tombs are visited by many as sacred places.
Its teachings have deeply influenced Islamic culture, especially in the areas of poetry, art, and music. Through its focus on inner truth and devotion, Sufism offers a path that goes beyond formal religious practice, encouraging seekers to discover the divine within themselves.
7. Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the sufis.
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Rulers in medieval India actively tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis to gain religious legitimacy, popular support, and strengthen their political power. These religious movements had deep roots among the local population, and aligning with them helped rulers win the trust and loyalty of their subjects.
The Nayanars were devoted saints of Lord Shiva, mainly in Tamil Nadu, who inspired people through devotional songs and poetry. Their message of personal devotion and social equality attracted a large following. South Indian rulers, especially the Cholas, promoted the Nayanar tradition by building grand temples, sponsoring religious festivals, and supporting Shaiva literature. By doing this, they positioned themselves as protectors of the Hindu faith and earned the devotion of their people.
Similarly, Sufi saints were respected across India for their spiritual wisdom, message of love and tolerance, and service to the poor. Their dargahs became popular pilgrimage spots visited by people of all faiths. Rulers from the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, such as Akbar, maintained close ties with influential Sufi saints. They offered land grants, visited their shrines, and sometimes even sought their blessings before going to war or making important decisions.
In both cases, these connections were not just spiritual but also political. By associating with popular saints and traditions, rulers aimed to unify diverse communities under their rule, promote social harmony, and present themselves as righteous and just leaders. Thus, their relationships with the Nayanars and Sufis helped them gain both religious authority and public support.
8. Analyse, with illustrations, why bhakti and sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions.
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Bhakti and Sufi thinkers chose to express their ideas in a variety of languages to reach a wider audience and connect more deeply with ordinary people. Instead of using only classical languages like Sanskrit, Arabic, or Persian, which were limited to scholars and elites, they adopted regional and local languages such as Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi, Bengali, and Urdu. This made their messages of love, devotion, equality, and unity more accessible and meaningful to the masses.
. His simple yet powerful language appealed to both Hindus and Muslims. Tulsidas, who wrote the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi, brought the story of Lord Rama closer to common people who could not understand Sanskrit. Similarly, Mirabai sang devotional songs in Rajasthani and Braj, expressing her deep love for Krishna in a language her audience understood and related to.
In the Sufi tradition, saints like Baba Farid used Punjabi, while Bulleh Shah composed his poetry in Punjabi and Saraiki. Amir Khusrau, a famous Sufi poet, used Hindavi, a blend of Persian and local Indian languages, to create songs that blended cultures and touched the hearts of people from different communities.
By using regional languages, Bhakti and Sufi thinkers not only broke social and religious barriers but also promoted inclusiveness and harmony. Their goal was to inspire devotion, ethical living, and a direct connection with the Divine, and using the people’s own language was the most effective way to achieve this.
9. Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them
Ans:
- Kabir’s Verses: He questions the blind following of customs in both Hinduism and Islam, promoting instead a direct relationship with God through love and devotion.
- Basavanna’s Vachanas: Basavanna, a Bhakti poet from Karnataka, challenged caste and social inequality. His vachanas (short poems) reject temple worship and priestly authority, focusing on personal devotion to Shiva.
- Excerpt from Baba Farid’s Sufi poetry: Baba Farid’s poetry reflects Sufi values like humility, tolerance, and love for all. He uses simple Punjabi to convey deep spiritual truths, encouraging compassion and a life free from ego and material desires.
- Janabai’s Abhang: Janabai, a woman saint from Maharashtra, wrote moving poems about her devotion to Lord Vitthal. Her poems show her struggles as a low-caste woman, expressing a longing for equality in God’s eyes and the hope for social justice through devotion.
- Mirabai’s Bhajans:. Her poetry speaks of divine love as the highest goal, surpassing all social boundaries.
