The Chola dynasty, a dominant power in South India from the 9th to 13th centuries, rose to prominence under Vijayalaya, who established the empire by conquering Thanjavur. Rajendra I further extended Chola influence with naval expeditions to Southeast Asia and a northward campaign to the Ganges, commemorating his victories by building Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
The Cholas were renowned for their highly efficient administration, featuring a strong central government and a unique system of local self-government through village assemblies like the Ur and Sabha, detailed in inscriptions like those at Uttaramerur. Agriculture, supported by extensive irrigation, formed the economic backbone, complemented by flourishing internal and overseas trade. Socially, the caste system was prominent, and temples became pivotal centers of community life.
The Chola period represents a pinnacle of Dravidian temple architecture, exemplified by the grand vimanas and intricate sculptures of the Brihadisvara and Gangaikonda Cholapuram temples. Their bronze sculptures, particularly the iconic Nataraja, are celebrated for their artistic brilliance.
EXERCISES
Question 1.
Mention two ways in which Inscriptions may be used for reconstructing the history of the Imperial Cholas.
Ans:
Inscriptions are a primary and exceptionally valuable source for reconstructing the history of the Imperial Cholas, offering direct insights where other sources might be scarce or less reliable. Here are two key ways they are used:
- Detailing Political and Military Achievements: Chola inscriptions, particularly those on temple walls and copper plates, serve as comprehensive records of royal genealogies, military campaigns, and territorial conquests. For instance, the Uttaramerur inscriptions provide vital information about the rules of local administration, while numerous other temple inscriptions detail the victories of kings like Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, including their expeditions to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. These records not only establish a chronological framework for the dynasty but also highlight the extent of their empire, their diplomatic relations, and the specific titles adopted by the rulers to commemorate their achievements.
- Illuminating Socio-Economic and Administrative Systems: Beyond military exploits, Chola inscriptions offer an unparalleled glimpse into the intricate social, economic, and administrative structures of the period. They meticulously record land grants (e.g., Brahmadeya for Brahmins, Shalabhoga for schools), taxation systems (types of taxes, collection methods), land revenue, and details of local self-governance through village assemblies (Ur and Sabha). These inscriptions reveal the qualifications for members of these assemblies, their committee structures, and their responsibilities in maintaining irrigation tanks, collecting taxes, and administering justice. This granular data allows historians to reconstruct daily life, economic practices, social hierarchies, and the remarkable efficiency of Chola local administration.
Question 2.
Name one of the masterpieces of the temples built by the Chola king Rajaraja I. Mention one architectural feature of the temple.
Ans:
One prominent architectural feature of this temple is its massive and towering Vimana (temple tower). Unlike many South Indian temples where the gopuram (gateway tower) is the tallest structure, the Brihadisvara Temple’s Vimana, rising directly over the sanctum sanctorum, is exceptionally tall and stands as the central, dominant feature of the complex.
Question 3.
Under whose rule, the Cholas rose to imperial greatness towards the end of the 10th century AD?
Ans:
Towards the close of the tenth century AD, the Chola dynasty solidified its position as a dominant imperial force in South India. This era marked a significant expansion of their power and influence, transforming them from a regional kingdom into a formidable empire.
This pivotal elevation to imperial greatness was largely spearheaded by the reign of Rajaraja I, who ruled from approximately 985 to 1014 CE. His strategic vision and military prowess were instrumental in broadening the Chola dominion and establishing their supremacy across the subcontinent and beyond.
Question 4.
Mention any two victories won by Cholas under Rajaraja I.
Ans:
Rajaraja I demonstrated exceptional military acumen, dramatically expanding the Chola Empire’s influence. Among his most crucial triumphs were:
Dominance in Northern Sri Lanka (Ilamandalam): In 993 CE, Rajaraja I spearheaded a significant maritime offensive, culminating in the successful invasion and annexation of Sri Lanka’s northern sector, encompassing its ancient capital, Anuradhapura. The newly incorporated region was designated “Mummudi Chola Mandalam” within the expanding Chola realm.
Conquest of the Cheras and Pandyas: Rajaraja I waged victorious campaigns against the Cholas’ enduring adversaries, the Cheras of Kerala and the Pandyas of Madurai. An early and decisive success was his triumph at Kandalur Salai around 988 CE, which effectively crippled the Chera’s maritime strength. Subsequently, he delivered a crushing defeat to the Pandyas, laying waste to their capital Madurai, and assumed the formidable title “Pandya Kulashani” (signifying “Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas”), thereby firmly cementing Chola paramountcy throughout the Tamil-speaking territories.
Question 5.
Who among the Chola kings adopted the title of ‘Gangaikonda’? Name the city commemorating the event.
Ans:
The Chola monarch who took on the epithet ‘Gangaikonda’ was Rajendra I.
This distinguished title was assumed to mark his triumphant military campaign into North India, during which his forces successfully reached the revered Ganges River and symbolically brought its waters back.
The city established to immortalize this significant achievement, and which he designated as his new capital, is Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
Question 6.
What names were given to the following territorial divisions of the Chola kingdom:
(a) Province, and (b) the District?
Ans:
In the era of the Imperial Cholas, the system of territorial organization involved specific nomenclature for its administrative units:
(a) A larger administrative division, comparable to a province, was designated as a Mandalam (or Mandalams in its plural form).
(b) The smaller administrative unit, akin to a district, was referred to as a Nadu (with Nadus being its plural).
Furthermore, during the reign of Rajaraja I, an additional intermediate division, known as a Valanadu, was introduced, sitting between the Mandalam and the Nadu. A Nadu itself could be further segmented into Kurrams (groups of villages) or comprised individual villages, known as Urs.
Question 7.
What was the method of electing members of the village assembly under the Cholas?
Ans:
The Chola system for electing village assembly members, known as Kudavolai, was a unique lottery-based process described in the Uttaramerur inscriptions from the reign of Parantaka I. This method was specifically used in Brahmadeya villages, which were granted to Brahmins.
Key Features of the Kudavolai System
1. Candidate Eligibility and Disqualification
To be considered for a position, candidates had to meet strict criteria. They needed to be between 35 and 70 years old, own a certain amount of tax-paying land, have a house, and possess knowledge of Vedic scriptures. **** Disqualifications were also in place to prevent corruption and ensure accountability. For instance, individuals who failed to submit accounts from a previous term or were guilty of social or moral transgressions were barred from running.
2. Nomination and Selection
The village was divided into thirty wards (kudumbus). From each ward, the names of eligible candidates were written on separate palm-leaf tickets (olai). These tickets were then placed into a pot (kudam).
3. The Lottery Process
On the day of the election, the entire village assembly gathered. A young boy or a temple priest would blindly draw the palm-leaf tickets from the pot. The names drawn became the elected representatives for various village committees, or variyams, responsible for different functions like managing gardens, tanks, and annual affairs.
4. Term Limits and Rotation
The elected members typically served for a term of one year. To promote fairness and wider participation, a member who had served was ineligible for re-election for the following three years. This system ensured a regular rotation of leadership and prevented a single group from monopolizing power.
Question 8.
Mention any two duties assigned to a village assembly under the Cholas.
Ans:
Under the Cholas, village assemblies (especially the Sabha in Brahmadeya villages) were granted significant autonomy and performed numerous crucial duties. Two key responsibilities were:
- Revenue Collection and Management: Village assemblies were primarily responsible for assessing and collecting local taxes, including land revenue, and remitting these to the central treasury. They also had the authority to levy additional taxes for specific village needs, such as public works or temple maintenance. This ensured efficient revenue flow and accountability at the local level.
- Maintenance of Public Works and Infrastructure: These assemblies played a vital role in managing and overseeing local infrastructure. This included the construction and upkeep of essential public works like irrigation tanks (eri-variyam), canals, roads, and public ponds. They also took care of maintaining village property, including temples and groves, ensuring the smooth functioning of local agrarian life and community welfare.
Question 9.
Give one evidence to suggest that the Brihadeswara Temple is a repository of every branch of art.
Ans:
The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur stands as a testament to the comprehensive artistic mastery of the Chola period, serving as a “repository of every branch of art.”
One compelling piece of evidence for this claim is the temple’s intricate integration of architecture, sculpture, and painting. Not only does its colossal structure showcase sophisticated engineering and a towering vimana (architecture), but its surfaces are also profusely covered with exquisite stone sculptures depicting a vast pantheon of Hindu deities, mythological narratives, and secular scenes. Furthermore, hidden within its walls and passages are vibrant Chola-era fresco paintings, some of which were discovered beneath later Nayaka overlays, illustrating religious themes and historical events.
STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
Question 1.
With the accession of Rajaraja I (985-1014 AD) began the most glorious epoch of the Cholas. In this context, explain briefly:
(a) His Conquests.
(b) His activities as a Great Builder and a Ruler.
Ans:
The reign of Rajaraja I (985-1014 AD) indisputably ushered in the most illustrious era for the Chola dynasty, solidifying their status as a formidable imperial power.
(a) His Victorious Campaigns: Rajaraja I was an exceptional military strategist who orchestrated a significant expansion of the Chola Empire. He effectively cemented Chola supremacy within South India by decisively overcoming long-standing rivals like the Cheras, notably at the crucial naval engagement of Kandalur Salai, and the Pandyas, bringing their domains firmly under Chola command. His strategic emphasis on naval power culminated in the pivotal capture of northern Sri Lanka, including its ancient capital, Anuradhapura, which was integrated into the empire. He also extended Chola dominion to encompass the Maldives. These widespread triumphs not only dramatically enlarged the empire’s territorial reach but also established the Cholas as the preeminent naval force in the Indian Ocean, vital for controlling lucrative maritime trade routes.
(b) His Role as a Master Architect and Administrator: Beyond his military achievements, Rajaraja I distinguished himself as a shrewd administrator and an insightful patron of art and architecture. His most enduring monumental legacy as a builder is the construction of the magnificent Brihadisvara Temple (Rajarajeswaram Temple) in Thanjavur. This monumental edifice, a quintessential example of Dravidian architectural genius, is celebrated for its immense scale, intricate carvings, and its towering vimana (temple spire), symbolizing the pinnacle of Chola artistic expression. As a sovereign, he implemented a highly efficient and centralized governmental system. He initiated comprehensive land surveys and systematic revenue assessments across his vast empire, ensuring meticulous record-keeping and a consistent state income. This robust administrative foundation provided the essential stability and prosperity that fostered the flourishing of culture, arts, and intellectual pursuits throughout his reign and the subsequent Chola golden age.
Question 2.
King Rajendra I (1014-1044 AD) raised the Chola empire to the pinnacle of glory. In this context explain:
(a) His main Conquests.
(b) His attainments as a Great Builder.
Ans:
(a) His Principal Conquests: Rajendra I significantly expanded Chola dominion. His most celebrated feat was a powerful naval campaign against the Srivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia, securing crucial maritime trade routes and establishing Chola naval supremacy.
(b) His Achievements as a Builder: As a great builder, Rajendra I’s lasting legacy is the establishment of his new imperial capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, symbolically commemorating his Ganges victory. Within this city, he commissioned the magnificent Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple, a grand Shiva temple noted for its elegant vimana and refined sculptures, reflecting an evolution in Chola architecture. He also continued to champion vital irrigation projects to support agricultural prosperity.
Question 3.
Under Cholas, the ruler was the pivot on which turned the whole machinery of the state, but actual administration was not highly centralised. In this context, explain briefly.
(a) The position of the Chola Monarch.
(b) Functioning of the autonomous rural institutions (Gram Sabhas).
Ans:
The Central Authority of the Chola Monarchy
At the apex of the Chola Empire was a powerful monarch who wielded supreme authority over all state matters. Kings like Rajaraja I and Rajendra I elevated the status of the ruler by adopting grand titles and linking their authority to divine sources. This divine association, along with an elaborate royal court, a well-structured bureaucracy, and a formidable military, provided the foundation for their vast imperial control. Despite this absolute power at the top, the sheer size of the empire meant that the day-to-day administration had to be decentralized. This devolution of power became more pronounced as one moved from the capital to the provinces, culminating in remarkable autonomy at the village level.
The Autonomy of Village Assemblies (Gram Sabhas)
The Gram Sabhas were a cornerstone of Chola governance, showcasing a unique form of self-rule. These assemblies operated largely independently and were divided into two main types:
- The Sabha, a more exclusive body composed of Brahmin landowners, particularly prominent in villages known as Brahmadeya.
Inscriptions, such as the famous Uttaramerur inscription, reveal a highly sophisticated system for selecting members of the Sabha. They used a Kudavolai (pot-ticket) lottery system to elect members based on strict qualifications related to age, land ownership, education, and personal conduct.
Once elected, these members served on specialized variyams (committees) to manage various aspects of village life. Their responsibilities included revenue collection, maintaining public works like irrigation systems, dispensing local justice, and managing communal lands. This robust system of grassroots administration allowed for efficient local governance without constant central interference, a key factor in the stability and prosperity of the Chola Empire.
Question 4.
Study the picture of the Brihadeswara Temple and answer the following questions:
(a) Name the place where the Temple is located.
(b) When and by whom was the Temple built?
(c) To which Deity was the temple dedicated?
(d) Mention outstanding features of the Temple
Ans:
Here are the responses to your questions concerning the Brihadeswara Temple:
(a) The temple is situated in Thanjavur (also known as Tanjore), within the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
(b) This sacred edifice was constructed during the Chola era, primarily between 1003 AD and 1010 AD (spanning the late 10th to early 11th century AD). Its creation is attributed to the Chola monarch, Rajaraja I.
(c) The temple’s consecration was to Lord Shiva. It is also recognized by the name Rajarajeswaram, a designation honoring its royal patron.
(d) Notable characteristics of the Temple include:
* Imposing and Soaring Vimana: The most striking element is its gigantic, pyramidal tower (Vimana) rising directly above the sanctum sanctorum.
* Exemplary Dravidian Architectural Style: It stands as a prime illustration of perfected Dravidian temple architecture, distinguished by its multi-tiered vimana, exquisitely carved sculptures, and expansive courtyards.
* Colossal Monolithic Nandi: A colossal statue of Nandi (the sacred bull of Lord Shiva), carved from a single stone, is positioned at the entrance, facing the primary shrine. It ranks among the largest Nandi figures in India.
* Historical Inscriptions: The temple’s exterior walls are extensively inscribed with numerous records, offering invaluable historical data on the Chola dynasty, Rajaraja I’s military triumphs, administrative practices, and details pertaining to the temple’s construction and endowments.
Question 5.
Discuss people’s social life under Imperial Cholas with reference to:
(a) Caste System (b) Religion (c) Literature and Cultural Activities
Ans:
Under the Imperial Cholas, social life was shaped by a distinct hierarchy, deep religious devotion, and vibrant cultural expressions.
(a) Caste System: Chola society was rigidly structured by the caste system, encompassing the traditional varna divisions and numerous jatis based on profession. Other occupational groups and guilds existed, with agricultural laborers and marginalized communities at the lower end, experiencing restricted social mobility.
(b) Religion: Saivism (devotion to Shiva) and Vaishnavism (devotion to Vishnu) were the dominant faiths. Chola monarchs were ardent Saivites, evident in their extensive patronage of Shiva temples like the Brihadisvara. The Bhakti Movement, driven by Nayanar and Alvar saints, continued to foster profound spiritual devotion. While Saivism was favored, religious tolerance was generally practiced, and the Devadasi system was integrated into temple life.
(c) Literature and Cultural Activities: The Chola period saw an unprecedented surge in literature and cultural activities, driven by royal patronage. Both Tamil (e.g., Kamban’s Ramayanam, compilation of Tirumurai) and Sanskrit literature flourished. Temples served as centers for performing arts like classical music and dance.
Question 6.
Write a brief note on the development of Tamil Literature under the Cholas.
Ans:
The Chola period is widely regarded as a golden age for Tamil literature, marked by prolific output, stylistic refinement, and strong royal patronage. This era witnessed significant contributions across various genres, deeply influencing future Tamil literary traditions.
A towering figure of this period was Kamban (Kambar), whose masterpiece, the Ramavataram (popularly known as Kamba Ramayanam), is an epic retelling of the Ramayana in Tamil. It is celebrated for its poetic brilliance, rich imagery, and profound emotional depth, becoming a cornerstone of Tamil literary heritage.
Another monumental work was Sekkilhar’s (Sekkizhar) Periyapuranam (or Tiruttondar Puranam), a grand hagiographical account of the sixty-three Nayanar Saivite saints. This work solidified the narratives and spiritual essence of the Bhakti movement. The Cholas also saw the systematic compilation of Saivite canonical texts, the Tirumurai, largely organized by Nambi Andar Nambi, which codified centuries of devotional poetry.
Court poets like Ottakoothar (Ottakuttar) composed ulas (processional poems) praising the Chola monarchs, while Jayankondar authored the famous war poem Kalingattuparani. Beyond these major works, numerous religious commentaries, grammatical treatises, and didactic texts were also produced. The Chola patronage thus fostered an environment where Tamil literature flourished, reaching new heights in both content and form, heavily imbued with devotional and epic themes.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
Short Answer Questions:
Question 1.
Mention the significance of inscriptions for providing information about the Cholas.
Ans:
Inscriptions hold immense significance as primary sources for reconstructing the history of the Imperial Cholas, offering unparalleled insights into their multifaceted empire. Their importance stems from several factors:
- Direct and Contemporary Records: Chola inscriptions are direct, contemporaneous records engraved on durable materials like stone (temple walls, rocks) and copper plates. This makes them highly reliable and authentic, providing first-hand information directly from the period, unlike later literary accounts which might be prone to exaggeration or inaccuracies.
- Comprehensive Range of Information: These inscriptions are veritable mines of diverse historical data. They meticulously detail:
- Political and Military Achievements: Royal genealogies, coronation dates, extensive records of military campaigns, conquests (e.g., Rajaraja I’s Sri Lankan victories, Rajendra I’s Ganges expedition), the titles adopted by kings, and the administration of newly acquired territories.
- Administrative Systems: They provide granular details about the central, provincial, and most notably, the highly autonomous local self-governance through village assemblies (like the Sabha described in the Uttaramerur inscription), including election procedures, committee structures, and their duties.
- Socio-Economic Life: Inscriptions shed light on land tenure systems, various types of taxes levied, irrigation management, economic activities (trade, guilds), social hierarchies, charitable endowments, and even aspects like the Devadasi system.
- Religious and Cultural Aspects: They record temple construction, endowments made to temples by kings and commoners, details of rituals, festivals, and the patronage extended to sculptors, dancers, and musicians, highlighting the intertwining of religion and daily life.
- Filling Historical Gaps: Given the limited availability of detailed literary chronicles from the period, inscriptions often serve as the sole source for many crucial historical facts, helping historians piece together the political chronology, administrative structures, and social dynamics of the Chola Empire. Their sheer abundance allows for a rich and detailed reconstruction of this glorious period.
Question 2.
Who established the rule of the Cholas ?
Ans:
Vijayalaya Chola: The Founder of the Chola Dynasty
Vijayalaya, who was initially a feudatory of the Pallavas, is widely credited with establishing the Imperial Chola dynasty in the mid-9th century CE. By making Thanjavur his capital, he laid the foundation for one of the most powerful and long-lasting dynasties in South Indian history. His successors, particularly his son Aditya I and later rulers like Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, expanded the Chola kingdom into a vast empire that dominated the Bay of Bengal.
Question 3.
Why did Rajaraja undertake a naval expedition against Ceylon and Maldives ?
Ans:
Rajaraja I undertook naval expeditions against Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Maldives for a combination of strategic, economic, and political reasons, aiming to establish comprehensive Chola dominance in the Indian Ocean.
- Control over Strategic Trade Routes: Both Ceylon and the Maldives were vital hubs in the lucrative Indian Ocean maritime trade network that connected East Asia (including China and Southeast Asia) with the Middle East and the Roman world. Controlling these islands meant exercising significant influence over these trade routes, allowing the Cholas to levy tolls, secure access to valuable goods, and enhance their economic prosperity.
- Neutralizing Political Threats and Rivals: The Sinhala kingdom in Ceylon often harbored or formed alliances with the Cholas’ traditional rivals, particularly the Pandyas and Cheras. By bringing northern Ceylon under Chola control, Rajaraja I aimed to cut off support to his mainland adversaries and prevent them from regrouping or launching attacks from the island. The Maldives also served as potential bases for hostile maritime activities, making their control crucial for Chola security.
Question 4.
Name any three great rulers of the Chola dynasty.
Ans:
Three great rulers of the Chola dynasty are:
- Rajaraja I
- Rajendra I
- Kulottunga I
Question 5.
Give any two achievements of Rajendra Chola.
Ans:
Two significant achievements of Rajendra Chola (Rajendra I) are:
- The Northern Expedition to the Ganges: Rajendra I led a remarkable military campaign deep into North India, reaching the sacred River Ganges. This audacious feat, unprecedented for a South Indian king, asserted Chola imperial might over a vast territory and earned him the prestigious title ‘Gangaikonda’ (the conqueror of the Ganga).
- The Naval Expedition to Southeast Asia (Srivijaya): He launched a powerful overseas naval expedition across the Bay of Bengal, successfully attacking and defeating the Srivijaya Empire (encompassing parts of modern Indonesia and Malaysia). This victory was crucial for securing Chola dominance over vital maritime trade routes in Southeast Asia and firmly established the Cholas as a major naval power in the Indian Ocean.
Question 6.
Name the new capital built by Rajendra Chola.
Ans:
The new imperial capital established by the formidable Chola emperor Rajendra I was Gangaikonda Cholapuram. This city’s creation was a direct and powerful commemoration of his extraordinary military campaign into North India, where his armies successfully reached the sacred Ganges River. By founding this new capital, literally meaning “the city of the Chola who conquered the Ganga,” Rajendra I sought to visibly symbolize his vast territorial conquests and the undisputed imperial might of the Chola dynasty.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram was designed to be a grand metropolitan center, reflecting the Chola Empire’s newfound zenith. Its most prominent feature is the magnificent Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple, a massive Shiva temple built by Rajendra I that closely rivals the Brihadisvara Temple of his father, Rajaraja I, in architectural splendor and scale. This city served not only as a political and administrative hub but also as a vibrant cultural center, showcasing the peak of Chola engineering, artistry, and their enduring legacy.
Question 7.
Why did the Cholas build a strong naval fleet ?
Ans:
The Cholas cultivated a formidable naval fleet driven by several core strategic imperatives that underpinned their empire’s growth and prosperity.
Primarily, this powerful maritime force was indispensable for controlling and safeguarding the highly profitable sea trade routes across the Indian Ocean. A robust navy ensured the security of Chola merchant vessels against piracy and guaranteed the uninterrupted movement of goods between Eastern and Western markets, thereby substantially increasing state revenues through customs duties and levies.
Secondly, the fleet was instrumental in facilitating imperial expansion and projecting Chola authority well beyond the Indian subcontinent. It empowered rulers like Rajaraja I to annex strategically crucial islands such as Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Furthermore, it enabled Rajendra I to embark on an unparalleled overseas expedition against the Srivijaya Empire, vividly demonstrating Chola dominance over distant lands.
Finally, the navy played a vital role in providing crucial coastal defense and security. It protected Chola ports and their extensive shoreline from potential incursions or raids by rival kingdoms, thereby ensuring the comprehensive stability and territorial integrity of their vast domain.
Question 8.
What made the Chola administration strong and effective?
Ans:
The Chola administration’s strength and efficacy originated from its strategic dual approach: potent central command paired with dynamic local autonomy.
At the apex, a powerful monarch, supported by a well-structured bureaucracy and formidable military, ensured centralized policy direction and enforcement across the vast empire. However, the system’s unique effectiveness lay in its highly independent local self-governance. Village assemblies, like the Ur and Sabha (documented in records such as the Uttaramerur inscription), deftly managed local taxes, justice, and critical public works, notably irrigation, fostering efficient grassroots participation.
This blend was further bolstered by a streamlined revenue system, built on meticulous land surveys, which provided consistent state income. Significant investment in public infrastructure, particularly irrigation projects, then fueled agricultural prosperity. This synergy of centralized authority, empowered local bodies, and sound economic practices underpinned the Chola administration’s remarkable stability and enduring success.
Question 9.
Name the two languages promoted by the Cholas.
Ans:
The Chola dynasty played a pivotal role in the dual promotion of two key languages: Tamil and Sanskrit. While Tamil was the native language of the region, it experienced a remarkable period of growth and literary excellence under Chola rule. This era saw the creation of some of Tamil’s most celebrated works, including Kamban’s epic Ramavataram and Sekkilhar’s hagiography, Periyapuranam. The Cholas’ support for their native tongue was further cemented by the compilation of the Tirumurai, a collection of Saivite religious texts.
Chola Patronage of Sanskrit
Simultaneously, the Cholas gave significant patronage to Sanskrit, particularly in intellectual and religious fields. Unlike Tamil, which was the language of daily life and governance, Sanskrit held a prestigious position as the language of sacred texts, philosophical discussions, and scholarly pursuits. The construction of elaborate temples and the support for Brahminical institutions helped in the preservation and spread of Sanskrit. This royal backing fostered a unique bilingual environment where both languages flourished, each serving a distinct purpose in the cultural and intellectual life of the empire.
Question 10.
Name any two features of temple built by the Cholas.
Ans:
- Towering Vimanas: Chola temples, especially the grand ones like the Brihadisvara Temple, are renowned for their massive and towering Vimanas (the pyramidal or tapering tower built directly over the main sanctum). These multi-storied structures rise dramatically, often being the tallest element of the temple complex, unlike later periods where the gopurams (gateway towers) became taller.
- Exquisite Sculptural Adornment: Chola temples are profusely decorated with intricate stone carvings and sculptures that adorn their walls, pillars, and vimanas. These depict a vast array of Hindu deities, mythological narratives, celestial beings, and secular scenes. Beyond stone, the Chola period is also famous for its superb bronze sculptures, particularly the iconic Nataraja (dancing Shiva), which were often housed within these temples and represent a pinnacle of metal casting art.
Question 11.
Which is the best example of Chola temples ?
Ans:
The best example of Chola temples is widely considered to be the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur (also known as the Big Temple or Rajarajeswaram Temple).
Built by Rajaraja I between 1003 and 1010 CE, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a magnificent testament to the peak of Chola architecture, sculpture, and bronze casting. Its towering vimana, intricate carvings, and sheer scale make it an unparalleled example of the Dravidian style.
Question 12.
What is known as the ‘gopuram’ ?
Ans:
In South Indian temple design, a gopuram denotes a colossal, frequently ornate, and towering entrance structure that serves as a gateway to a Hindu temple complex.
Distinctive attributes of a gopuram include:
- Placement: Typically situated at the entry points through the perimeter walls encompassing the primary temple shrine. Extensive temple layouts frequently feature several concentric walls, each boasting its own gopuram, with the outermost ones often being the most imposing.
- Structural Form: Gopurams generally commence with a rectangular base and ascend in a diminishing, pyramidal, or elongated shape. They are vertically segmented into multiple diminishing levels (talas) and are commonly crowned with a barrel-vaulted roof and a series of decorative finials (kalasams).
- Ornamentation: They are extensively embellished with detailed sculptures, carvings, and occasionally vivid paintings. These artistic elements usually portray various deities, mythological beings, narratives from Hindu scriptures, and diverse decorative motifs, serving both aesthetic and instructive functions.
- Significance: Gopurams function as a symbolic threshold, transitioning visitors from the mundane external environment to the sacred internal space of the temple. Their design aims to convey the temple’s majesty to worshippers, frequently serving as striking geographical markers.
Question 13.
To what use was the temple put during the Chola period?
Ans:
During the Chola period, temples served far beyond their primary function as mere places of worship; they were vibrant, multi-functional hubs that formed the very core of social, economic, administrative, and cultural life.
- Religious and Spiritual Centers: Their fundamental purpose was, of course, to be centers of devotion, rituals, and worship for various deities, predominantly Shiva and Vishnu. They housed idols, conducted daily rites, and were destinations for pilgrims, fostering religious fervor and the Bhakti movement.
- Economic Powerhouses: Temples were enormous landowners, often possessing vast tracts of agricultural land, which they managed, leased out, and from which they collected revenue. They functioned as significant employers for a large number of people, including priests, administrators, artisans, musicians, dancers (Devadasis), and laborers. They also acted as banks and credit institutions, lending money to villagers and merchants, and participating actively in local trade.
- Social and Community Hubs: Temples were the focal points for community gatherings, festivals, and social events. They served as public spaces where people met, celebrated, and shared news. They often maintained facilities like feeding houses (for the poor and travelers) and hospitals, reflecting their role in community welfare.
- Administrative and Judicial Centers: For many villages, the temple acted as a de facto administrative center. Inscriptions on temple walls often recorded land grants, tax details, and important village assembly decisions. Village assemblies (Sabhas and Urs) frequently convened within temple precincts, where local disputes were also resolved.
- Educational and Cultural Institutions: Temples fostered learning by maintaining libraries, providing education (especially Vedic and religious texts), and supporting scholars. They were also the primary venues for the promotion and performance of classical music, dance (like Bharatanatyam), and drama, providing patronage to artists and preserving cultural traditions. The sheer scale of construction also made them centers for architectural and sculptural innovation.
Question 14.
Name one important literary source that gives information about the Cholas. Name the author of this text and the ruler, whose exploits its describes.
Ans:
The Tamil literary work Kalingattuparani, composed by the poet Jayankondar, provides a rich historical and cultural perspective on the Chola dynasty. This text is centered around the military exploits of the Chola king Kulottunga I, with a specific focus on his victorious conquest of the Kalinga kingdom.
Historical and Cultural Significance
The Kalingattuparani serves as more than just a war chronicle; it is a blend of historical record, poetic narrative, and a depiction of the cultural ethos of the Chola era. It details the preparations, battles, and the ultimate triumph of Kulottunga I’s forces, offering valuable insights into the military strategies and political landscape of the time. The text also provides a glimpse into the courtly life, religious practices, and societal norms prevalent during the reign of this notable monarch.
Poetic Structure and Style
Jayankondar’s work is a prime example of the Parani genre of Tamil literature, a poetic form specifically dedicated to celebrating a king’s victory in battle. The narrative is structured to laud the king and his warriors, elevating the military campaign to a heroic epic.
Question 15.
Name the last ruler of the Cholas.
Ans:
Rajendra III
Question 16.
Who finally defeated the Cholas ?
Ans:
The Imperial Chola dynasty was finally defeated and its rule effectively brought to an end by the Pandyas in the 13th century.
Specifically, the last significant Chola ruler, Rajendra III, faced a decisive defeat at the hands of the Pandyan king Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I (who reigned from approximately 1251–1272 CE). This pivotal victory led to the complete assertion of Pandyan dominance over the Chola territories, marking the end of the Chola Empire’s long reign in South India.
Question 17.
Give an example of sculpture during the Chola period.
Ans:
When considering Chola-era sculptural art, the bronze representation of Nataraja undeniably stands as the most iconic and highly acclaimed example.
These magnificent bronze images depict Lord Shiva in his manifestation as the cosmic dancer, engaging in the Ananda Tandava. This profound dance isn’t merely movement; it symbolically embodies the eternal cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction. Their widespread admiration stems from their meticulous artistry, incredibly dynamic postures, and overall artistic perfection, which collectively highlight them as the absolute zenith of Chola metalwork and sacred artistic expression.
Question 18.
Who wrote the Tamil Ramayana ?
Ans:
The epic Tamil version of the Ramayana, known as Ramavataram or more commonly as Kamba Ramayanam, was authored by the renowned poet Kamban (also spelled Kambar). His monumental work is celebrated for its poetic brilliance, rich imagery, and profound devotional and philosophical insights, making it a cornerstone of Tamil literary heritage and a masterpiece of the Chola period.
Question 1.
With reference to the sources of information about the Cholas, give the significance of the following:
(a) Chola Inscriptions.
(b) Brihadeshwara Temple.
Ans:
Both the extensive epigraphic records and monumental temples, such as the Brihadisvara Temple, serve as critical historical lenses through which to comprehend the Imperial Cholas.
(a) Chola Inscriptions: These represent indispensable primary evidence, meticulously etched onto stone and copper, providing direct, contemporary narratives. They furnish a wealth of intelligence spanning political and military history (including royal lineages, conquests, and governance details), the intricate administrative framework (notably local self-governance via Gram Sabhas, as revealed in the Uttaramerur inscription), socio-economic conditions (like land tenure, taxation, and guilds), and religious and cultural practices (such as temple construction, endowments, and artistic patronage). Essentially, Chola inscriptions form the foundational knowledge for our detailed and accurate understanding of the dynasty.
(b) Brihadisvara Temple: As a monumental physical artifact, the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur offers profound insights into Chola accomplishments. Its sheer magnitude, precision engineering, and the towering vimana exemplify the pinnacle of Chola architectural and engineering prowess. The temple’s rich sculptural ornamentation and murals, coupled with its role in the context of famous bronze figures, showcase their artistic and cultural sophistication. This magnificent edifice explicitly symbolizes the immense imperial power, wealth, and divine ambitions of Rajaraja I and the Chola dynasty, thereby indirectly illustrating their advanced economic and social organization.
Question 2.
With reference to the Chola period explain the following”
(a) Taxes imposed by the Cholas.
(b) Administration of the Kingdom,
(c) The three types of village assemblies.
Ans:
The Chola era is lauded for its highly developed and effective administrative framework, notable for its intricate equilibrium between robust central authority and significant local self-governance.
(a) Revenue System of the Cholas: The paramount source of state revenue was the land tax, identified as Kadamai or Kudimai, typically assessed as a share of the agricultural produce (collected in kind) based on the land’s yield. Beyond this primary agricultural impost, the Cholas levied a varied assortment of other charges, including professional taxes, property levies on residences, marriage fees, commercial tolls, and specific imposts such as nirvilai (for water usage) and maramadi (on trees). Additionally, local village assemblies held the discretion to institute their own taxes to address distinct community requirements.
(b) Kingdom’s Governance Structure: The kingdom’s governance revolved around a formidable monarch who exercised ultimate authority across all governmental facets, supported by a highly organized and disciplined bureaucracy. The extensive empire was meticulously partitioned into large provinces termed Mandalams, which were subsequently subdivided into intermediate Valanadus, then into smaller Nadus (districts). Villages constituted the fundamental administrative units. Revenue assessment was scrupulously managed through comprehensive land surveys. While the king retained ultimate judicial power, local disputes were frequently adjudicated by village assemblies. A powerful military and a formidable navy were intrinsic to this structure, ensuring internal stability and facilitating imperial expansion.
(c) The Three Categories of Village Assemblies: A hallmark of Chola administration was the considerable autonomy enjoyed by its three principal classifications of village assemblies:
- Ur: This was the most common form of assembly, comprising all tax-paying residents in typical villages, charged with overseeing local matters.
- Sabha (or Mahasabha): Exclusively found in Brahmadeya villages (lands endowed to Brahmins), this assembly consisted of adult Brahmin landholders. It was distinguished by its sophisticated Kudavolai lottery method for selecting members to various specialized committees (variyams) responsible for domains like irrigation and justice.
- Nagaram: These assemblies were formed by merchants and traders in urban or commercial centers, tasked with regulating trade and market-related operations. The empowered nature of these self-governing bodies was fundamental to efficient administration at the grassroots level.
Question 3.
With reference to the Chola Administration, write short notes on:
(a) The King, the chief administrator
(b) Local Self-Government
Ans:
Here are concise notes on two core components of the Chola administration:
(a) The King, the Central Authority: Within the Chola system, the King held ultimate, unparalleled authority, serving as the chief executive across all state functions—executive, judicial, and military. Monarchs like Rajaraja I and Rajendra I were often perceived as semi-divine, their power upheld by a vast, disciplined bureaucracy ensuring efficient implementation of imperial decrees throughout the sprawling empire. Despite local autonomies, the monarch remained the undisputed source of power and strategic direction.
(b) Local Self-Governance: A hallmark of Chola administration was its highly developed and effective local self-governance at the village level. This was primarily managed by independent assemblies: the Ur (general assembly of tax-paying villagers) and the more sophisticated Sabha (of Brahmin landholders, often elected via the Kudavolai lottery system, as seen in Uttaramerur inscriptions). These assemblies, through various committees (variyams), handled crucial local responsibilities including revenue collection, maintaining public works (like irrigation), administering local justice, and managing village lands, fostering effective grassroots administration and stability through decentralization.
Question 4.
Study the picture of the Brihadeshwara Temple and answer the following questions:
(a) Who built this temple ?
(b) To which deity is the temple dedicated ?
(c) Mention two special features of this temple.
Ans:
The Brihadeswara Temple, a remarkable monument of Chola architecture, was constructed under the patronage of the formidable Chola ruler, Rajaraja I. This grand Hindu temple is a tribute to Lord Shiva and stands as a testament to the architectural and artistic prowess of its time.
Architectural and Artistic Highlights
Two of the most striking characteristics of the Brihadeswara Temple are its colossal Vimana (main tower) and its rich sculptural artistry. The Vimana itself soars to a height of approximately 216 feet, showcasing the advanced engineering capabilities of the Chola era. This massive structure is a defining feature of the temple’s skyline and a marvel of its design.
In addition to its impressive architecture, the temple is celebrated for its abundant and detailed stone carvings. These intricate sculptures depict a variety of subjects, including deities, mythological beings, and historical narratives, filling the temple with life and stories. The temple’s collection of famed bronze statues further underscores the artistic brilliance of the Chola dynasty, renowned for their mastery in both stone and metalwork.
Question 5.
With reference to the South Indian temples answer the following questions:
(a) The role of the temple as an employer.
(b)The role of the temple as a landlord.
(c) The role of the temple as centres of learning.
Ans:
South Indian temples, especially during the Chola era, evolved far beyond religious sites into comprehensive institutions deeply embedded in regional life.
(a) Temple as an Employer: Temples were massive generators of employment, sustaining a vast workforce both within their complex and in surrounding communities. They directly engaged numerous personnel, including priests, administrators, various artisans (sculptors, metalworkers), musicians, dancers (Devadasis), and supporting staff like cooks and guards. Large temples, such as the Brihadisvara, could employ thousands, thus providing livelihoods for countless families and acting as significant local economic drivers.
(b) Temple as a Landlord: These temples were among the largest landowners within the Chola realm, acquiring extensive agricultural territories through royal and private endowments. They meticulously managed these vast holdings, often by leasing plots to cultivators. The substantial revenue generated from these lands constituted a major portion of the temple’s treasury, financing its upkeep, rituals, staff salaries, and charitable initiatives, thereby bestowing considerable economic power and influence over local agrarian economies.
(c) Temple as Centers of Learning: Temples functioned as vital hubs for education and intellectual pursuits. Many prominent temples housed specialized schools (pathshalas or ghatikas) offering instruction in traditional subjects, including Vedic studies, Sanskrit grammar, philosophy, religious scriptures, and epics, occasionally extending to secular disciplines like astronomy. They maintained extensive libraries of palm-leaf manuscripts, attracting and supporting scholars. Through royal and private endowments, temples fostered intellectual discourse and the creation of new literary and philosophical works, proving indispensable for knowledge dissemination and preservation.
Question 6.
With reference to Chola literature, write on the following:
(a) Kalingattuparani
(b) Religious and secular literature.
Ans:
(a) Kalingattuparani: A notable literary contribution from this period is the Kalingattuparani, a unique war poem penned by the celebrated poet Jayankondar. This work vividly recounts the military exploits of Chola king Kulottunga I, particularly detailing his successful campaign against the Kalinga kingdom. Beyond its poetic merit, it serves as a valuable historical record, illuminating the era’s political and strategic events.(b) Religious and Secular Literature: Chola literary output displayed a dynamic blend of spiritual fervor and diverse worldly narratives. Religious literature was deeply rooted in the Bhakti tradition, primarily Saivism and Vaishnavism. Key achievements include the systematic compilation of the Saivite canonical hymns, the Tirumurai (organized by Nambi Andar Nambi), and Sekkilhar’s Periyapuranam, a grand hagiography of Saivite saints. Simultaneously, secular literature thrived, most famously exemplified by Kamban’s Ramavataram (Kamba Ramayanam), an epic retelling of the Ramayana that, despite devotional undertones, is primarily recognized for its narrative brilliance. Court poets like Ottakoothar also contributed with Ulas (processional poems) praising monarchs, while scholarly works on grammar and commentaries further enriched the period’s intellectual landscape.
