The Sangam Age: Kingdoms and The Social and Economic Conditions

The Sangam Age, flourishing in early South India from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE, is defined by its rich literary output from assemblies of Tamil poets and scholars in Madurai. This period was dominated by three powerful dynasties, the Muvendars: the Cheras, known for their western coastal trade with the Roman Empire via ports like Muziris; the Cholas, who controlled the fertile Kaveri delta and boasted a strong navy, with Kaveripattinam as a key port and ruler Karikala Chola noted for dam construction; and the Pandyas from the south, whose capital Madurai thrived on pearl trade from Korkai and maintained diplomatic ties with Rome.

Sangam society, though influenced by Vedic traditions, had its own distinct character. It was hierarchically structured, with Brahmins and Kshatriyas at the top, followed by Vaishyas and Vellalars, and other groups like hunters and laborers. Women generally enjoyed more respect and autonomy than in later periods, evidenced by prominent female poets, though practices like Sati were present. Religious life centered on indigenous deities like Murugan and hero-stone worship, with Brahmanical influence being less pervasive than in North India.

Economically, the Sangam Age was robust, primarily driven by agriculture, with rice and spices being key crops, supported by advanced irrigation. Crafts and industries like textile weaving and shipbuilding also flourished. However, trade was the era’s economic highlight. Extensive maritime trade, especially with the Roman Empire, saw South India export valuable goods like spices, pearls, and fine textiles in exchange for Roman gold and silver. The discovery of monsoon winds significantly boosted this trade, making the port cities of Muziris, Kaveripattinam, and Korkai vital centers of commerce. The state’s revenue largely depended on land taxes, customs duties, and war gains.

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Name the oldest language of South India. OR Name the oldest Dravidian language.
Ans:
Tamil.

Question 2.

What is known as Sangam literature?

Ans:

The term “Sangam literature” designates the oldest existing collection of writings in the Tamil language, largely created between the 3rd century BCE and the 4th century CE. It derives its name from the “Sangams,” or academic gatherings, of poets and scholars believed to have convened in Madurai, southern India.

This extensive compilation, primarily poetic, offers invaluable glimpses into the political, societal, and economic realities of ancient Tamilakam (the Tamil region). Its thematic scope encompasses aspects of romance, conflict, valor, administration, and everyday existence. 

Question 3.

Name any two literary sources to reconstruct history of the Sangam age.

Ans:

First, Tolkappiyam, an ancient Tamil grammar text, uniquely offers deep insights beyond linguistics into the social organization, economic practices, and geographical divisions of the era. Second, the extensive poetic collections of Ettuttogai (Eight Anthologies) and Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) serve as direct historical records. Notably, Purananuru within Ettuttogai is invaluable for its narratives of warfare, heroism, and daily life, frequently referencing real historical figures and events, thereby shedding light on the political and social fabric of the period.

Question 4.

Who were ‘Tirukurral’ ?

Ans:

Tiruvalluvar.

Question 5.
Mention any two archaelogical sources to reconstruct history of the Sangam age.
Ans:

Two significant archaeological sources for reconstructing the history of the Sangam Age are:

1. Megalithic Burials and Artifacts: Excavations of numerous megalithic sites across South India, particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, have yielded substantial evidence. These burial sites often contain human remains alongside a variety of grave goods such as black-and-red pottery, iron tools and weapons (like spearheads and sickles), beads made of semi-precious stones, and occasionally gold ornaments. These findings offer insights into the material culture, burial practices, and technological advancements of the Sangam period, often corroborating details found in Sangam literature about warfare and daily life.
2. Roman Coins and Roman Pottery/Artifacts (e.g., from Arikamedu and Keeladi): The discovery of a considerable number of Roman gold and silver coins, along with Roman pottery (like rouletted ware and amphorae jars) and other artifacts, at various sites like Arikamedu (near Puducherry), Keeladi, and Alagankulam, provides strong evidence of the flourishing maritime trade between the Tamil kingdoms and the Roman Empire during the Sangam Age. These finds directly support the literary accounts of extensive commercial links and the prosperity derived from this trade.

Question 6.

Why are graves of people in the megalithic phase in South India’s history called ‘Megalithis’?

Ans:

These burial sites are characterized by the use of large, often undressed stones to construct the graves or to mark them prominently on the landscape. Whether it’s massive stone slabs forming chambers, towering standing stones (menhirs), or circles of boulders enclosing the burial, the defining feature is the deliberate and often monumental use of sizable stones.

Question 7.

How do Megaliths suggest that people of Southern India in those times had become familiar with iron?

Ans:

Megaliths, large stone structures found across South India, strongly indicate that people in those times were familiar with iron because archaeological excavations of these burial sites consistently yield a rich array of iron artifacts.

Within these megalithic graves, archaeologists have discovered various iron objects such as:

• Tools: Sickles, hoes, ploughshares, axes, knives, and adzes, suggesting their use in agriculture and daily life.
• Weapons: Swords, daggers, spearheads, and arrowheads, pointing to their role in warfare and hunting.
• Household items and ornaments: Including lamps, nails, and sometimes even iron bits for horses.

The widespread presence and variety of these iron implements within megalithic contexts, alongside other grave goods like pottery, firmly establish the association between megalithic cultures and the Iron Age in South India. This consistent discovery demonstrates that the communities building these elaborate stone monuments had not only mastered iron metallurgy but were also using iron extensively in their daily activities, economic pursuits, and even ritualistic practices.

Question 8.

Why did Arundhati, a character in Sanskrit literature, become a model for South Indian Women in the Sangam age?

Ans:

Arundhati, from Sanskrit literature, became a revered figure for women in the Sangam Age because she embodied unwavering chastity and supreme wifely devotion. As the wife of Sage Vasistha, her consistent portrayal as an ideal of purity and marital steadfastness resonated strongly with the virtues highly prized for women in ancient South Indian society.

Question 9.

Name the two agricultural products during the Sangam Age.

Ans:

During the Sangam Age, rice (paddy) was the staple food and the dominant agricultural product, especially thriving in the fertile river plains. Alongside it, pepper stood out as another crucial crop, highly valued for its role in foreign trade, particularly with the Roman Empire. While other crops like sugarcane, cotton, and various spices were cultivated, these two formed the bedrock of the agricultural economy.

Question 10.

Name the two prominent ports on India’s Western Coast during the Sangam age.

Ans:

Two highly prominent ports on India’s Western Coast during the Sangam Age were Muziris and Tondi.

Muziris (or Mushiri) Located on the Malabar Coast in modern-day Kerala, Muziris was a significant international trade center. It was especially known for its extensive trade with the Roman Empire, exporting items like pepper, spices, pearls, and precious stones.

Tondi Also found on the western coast, likely in present-day Kerala within the Chera kingdom, Tondi was another key port that played a vital role in Indo-Roman trade during this period.

Question 11.

Name the two deities worshiped by people in the Sangam age.

Ans:

During the Sangam Age, the religious practices of the Tamil people were focused on the veneration of two primary deities. Murugan, also known as Seyyon, was a central figure, revered as the foremost Tamil god. He was closely associated with mountainous regions and hunting, and his worship was a significant part of the culture, with various festivals mentioned in the Sangam literary works.

He was a highly respected deity linked to pastoral lands and forests. Sangam literature portrays Mayon as a supreme being, highlighting his considerable importance in the religious beliefs of the time.

Question 12.

Name the two items of trade referred to in the Tamil literature of the Sangam age.

Ans:

Two prominent items of trade frequently mentioned in the Tamil literature of the Sangam Age are:

1. Spices (especially Pepper): South Indian spices, particularly black pepper, were highly sought after and exported in large quantities, especially to the Roman Empire.
2. Fine Textiles (especially Cotton/Muslin): The Sangam literature often highlights the high quality of woven cotton and muslin fabrics, which were in great demand both domestically and internationally.

Question 13.

Mention the two views held by scholars regarding the origin of the Dravidians.

Ans:

One theory proposes that Dravidians are native to the Indian subcontinent, having inhabited the region for millennia. This perspective often links them to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, suggesting that Dravidian languages were spoken by its populace and subsequently dispersed south and east following the civilization’s decline. The existence of the Brahui language, a Dravidian tongue found in Balochistan, is occasionally presented as evidence of their broader historical presence in the northwest.

Conversely, an alternative hypothesis suggests an external origin for the Dravidians, positing a migration from the Iranian plateau (or even areas further west) during the fourth or third millennium BCE. This theory sometimes draws parallels between Dravidian and other ancient linguistic groups, such as Elamite. Supporters of this view suggest these migrant communities introduced agricultural practices and potentially their language to the Indus Valley region before extending their presence into peninsular India.

Question 14.

Name any ftw.famouse epics of Tamil literature.

Ans:

The Silappatikaram and Manimekalai are celebrated twin epics of Tamil literature. Written by Ilango Adigal, Silappatikaram, or “The Tale of an Anklet,” is a poignant story of Kannagi’s relentless pursuit of justice following her husband Kovalan’s wrongful execution, culminating in Madurai’s destruction. It’s treasured for its tragic narrative and its detailed portrayal of ancient Tamil customs and the revered ideal of chastity.

Question 15.

How does the inscripition of Kharvela, the ruler of Kalinga, enable us to reconstruct history of the Sangam age?

Ans:

Dating to approximately the 1st century BCE, it notably recounts Kharavela’s victory over a “confederacy of Tamil states” referred to as “Tramira-desha Sanghatam.” This inscription offers independent, non-Tamil corroboration for the existence and organized political activity of the Tamil kingdoms (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas) during a period directly overlapping with the Sangam era. Its mention of this confederacy provides a crucial chronological anchor, supplementing the internal historical narratives found within Sangam literature itself and solidifying the timeline for early South Indian history.

Question 16.

The hero-stone reminds us of an important event. What is the event?

Ans:

These stones are erected to honor valor and remind people of an important event, such as:

• Death in battle: A warrior falling bravely while fighting for their king, village, or cause.
• Defending cattle: Cattle raids were common, and individuals who died protecting their livestock were often honored with hero-stones.
• Protecting women or the community: Those who laid down their lives to safeguard the dignity of women or to defend their village from attack.
• Sacrifices for their lord: Loyalty to the chieftain or king, even unto death, was a significant theme.

Essentially, a hero-stone marks the site and celebrates the memory of a person who demonstrated extraordinary courage and selflessness, becoming a martyr in the eyes of their people. They stand as enduring symbols of the bravery and sacrifice deeply valued in ancient South Indian society.

Question 17.

Mention any two Chera rulers whose names figure in the Sangam literature.

Ans:

Uthiyan Cheralathan

Uthiyan Cheralathan is regarded as one of the first Chera monarchs mentioned in Sangam-era writings. He is highly praised for his benevolence and his support for poets.

Senguttuvan (Cheran Chenkuttuvan)

A prominent figure in Sangam literature, Senguttuvan is a celebrated Chera king. He is famous for his military campaigns, especially his naval victories, and plays a notable role in the epic poem Silappatikaram.

Question 18.

Who was the greatest among the earliest Chola kings?

Ans:

Among the early Chola monarchs, Karikala Chola stands out as particularly eminent.

He is extensively lauded in Sangam literature for his significant martial achievements, most notably his decisive triumph at the Battle of Venni. Here, he crushed a formidable alliance of Pandya and Chera kings, alongside eleven lesser chieftains, thereby securing his undisputed supremacy.

Beyond his military might, Karikala is also recognized for remarkable civil engineering feats. These include the construction of vital flood embankments along the Kaveri River and the development of the crucial port city of Puhar (Kaveripattinam). His period of rule truly signified an era of considerable affluence and power for the nascent Chola dynasty.

Question 19.

What did the Chera region produce in large quantities in the Sangam age?

Ans:

The Chera kingdom, situated on the Malabar Coast, encompassing present-day Kerala and sections of Tamil Nadu, was a prominent hub for the cultivation and export of spices during the Sangam Age, with black pepper being a highly prized commodity.

This advantageous geographical position, coupled with access to the Western Ghats, enabled the Cheras to cultivate a diverse range of spices that were in considerable demand, particularly by the Roman Empire. Beyond spices, the Chera domain also engaged in the substantial production and trade of materials like ivory, timber, pearls, and various precious stones.Its strategic coastal position, coupled with the fertile slopes of the Western Ghats, enabled extensive cultivation of spices, particularly black pepper, which found immense demand in markets like the Roman Empire. Beyond these valuable spices, the Chera domain also engaged in significant trade of ivory, timber, pearls, and various precious stones, contributing to its economic prosperity.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.
There are many literary sources to reconstruct history of the Sangam age. In this context explain the literary importance of Tirukurral.
Ans:

The Tirukkural, authored by Thiruvalluvar, provides a unique perspective for understanding the Sangam Age, not through historical narratives, but by revealing the era’s fundamental ethical and moral principles. Unlike works such as the Purananuru, which directly document rulers and conflicts, the Tirukkural’s importance lies in its universal ethical framework.

Structured into 1330 concise couplets covering virtue (Aram), wealth/governance (Porul), and love/pleasure (Inbam), it reflects the societal values, norms, and aspirations of its time. The “Porul” section, for example, elaborates on principles of effective governance, justice, economic management, and ideal conduct for leaders and citizens alike, thereby offering insight into the political thought and administrative goals prevalent during the Sangam period. Similarly, “Aram” outlines the ethical standards for individual behavior, both personal and public, highlighting virtues like integrity, empathy, and diligence. Thus, while not a historical chronicle, the Tirukkural serves as an invaluable resource for grasping the philosophical underpinnings and moral character of Sangam society.

Question 2.

How can the Megaliths help us to reconstruct events of the Sangam age ?

Ans:

Megaliths, the large stone structures primarily used as burial sites or commemorative monuments, serve as invaluable archaeological evidence for reconstructing the events and understanding the life of the Sangam Age in South India. While Sangam literature offers a rich textual narrative, megaliths provide tangible, non-literary corroboration and unique insights that complement and expand upon the written records.

Here’s how megaliths aid in this reconstruction:

• Dating and Chronology: The presence of specific types of pottery (like Black and Red Ware) and iron objects within megalithic burials allows archaeologists to establish a chronological framework for the period. While some megalithic sites predate the core Sangam period, many overlap and provide a continuous archaeological record, helping to fix the Sangam Age within the broader South Indian Iron Age. Radiocarbon dating of organic remains found in these burials further refines these timelines.
  
• Material Culture and Technology: The artifacts interred with the deceased in megalithic graves reveal a great deal about the material culture and technological advancements of the Sangam people. The abundance of iron tools and weapons (such as arrowheads, spearheads, sickles, and hoes) definitively shows the widespread use of iron metallurgy during this era, indicating a transition from earlier stone and copper ages. This provides concrete evidence of their economic activities and military capabilities, often mirroring the descriptions of warfare and daily life found in Sangam poetry.
  
• Social Organization and Beliefs: The varying sizes, complexities, and contents of megalithic burials offer clues about social stratification. Elaborate burials with a wider array of grave goods (like precious stones, gold ornaments, and more sophisticated tools) might suggest higher social status or wealth of the deceased, indicating the presence of social hierarchies. The very practice of elaborate burials, often including pottery, food offerings (like grains), and personal belongings, strongly suggests a belief in an afterlife or a continuation of life after death. 
• Economic Practices: Beyond metallurgy, megalithic sites yield evidence of other economic activities. The discovery of various types of pottery, including fine ware, indicates developed ceramic traditions. Remnants of grains like paddy and ragi within burial urns confirm agricultural practices and the types of crops cultivated. While direct evidence of trade routes is more limited from megaliths alone, the material remains found can sometimes suggest connections with other regions.
  
• Settlement Patterns (Indirectly): While megaliths are primarily burial sites and actual settlements are less commonly preserved, their geographical distribution helps in mapping the areas inhabited by these communities. The close proximity of some megalithic sites to potential ancient settlements, even if the settlements themselves are ephemeral, can provide indirect insights into where people lived and organized their lives.

Question 3.

Describe the social conditions that Sangam literature depicts with reference to:

(a) The Castes

(b) The Ruling Class and the Class of Warriors

Ans:

Sangam literature paints a detailed picture of ancient Tamilakam’s social structure, characterized by emerging hierarchies and specialized occupational groups that prefigured later caste formations.

The society was segmented into primary divisions: the Andanar (Brahmins), revered as priests and scholars, often advising rulers and performing rituals; the Arasar (Ruling Class), comprising kings, chieftains, and warriors, responsible for governance and defense; the Vanigar (Merchants), who facilitated trade and commerce; and the Vellalar (Agriculturists), prosperous landowners forming a significant part of the populace. Beyond these, various other professional and tribal groups like fishermen, bards, hunters, and laborers also existed, indicating a diverse and stratified society.

The ruling class (Arasar) was paramount, with hereditary kings leading the Muvendars and wielding considerable authority. Integral to this structure was the warrior class, often interlinked with the Arasar. Warfare was frequent, and warriors were highly esteemed for their bravery, with their heroic deeds extensively glorified in poetry. Dying in battle was seen as honorable, leading to the erection of hero-stones (Nadu Kal). 

Question 4.

Describe the social conditions that Sangam literature suggests with reference to:

(a) Institution of Marriage

(b) Position of Women

Ans:

Sangam literature reveals a nuanced understanding of marriage and the societal standing of women.

(a) Institution of Marriage: Marriage in the Sangam Age was revered as a sacred union. While parental arrangement for daughters with valorous men was common, love marriages (Kalavu), where women exercised choice, also featured prominently.  Wedding rituals included specific customs, though the explicit mention of a “Thali” or fire ceremonies is not uniformly present.

(b) Position of Women: Women in the Sangam era generally held a respected and comparatively liberated position. They were not solely confined to the home and actively engaged in various spheres. Access to education was evident, with notable female poets like Avvaiyar enriching Tamil literature.  However, a patriarchal slant was present, as evidenced by the often-pitiable plight of widows and the existence of Sati among elite groups, though not widespread. Despite certain constraints, Sangam women demonstrated agency and courage, participating in economic activities such as farming and weaving.

Question 5.

The Sangam literature gives a complete and true picture of economic conditions of the age. Describe economic life of the people with reference to:

(a)Agriculture (b) Trade

Ans:

Agriculture formed the foundation, with paddy (rice) as the staple crop, widely cultivated in fertile areas like the Kaveri delta. Other significant crops included millets, sugarcane, cotton, and valuable spices such as pepper and turmeric. Farmers employed sophisticated irrigation methods, and a kingdom’s prosperity was directly tied to its agricultural yield, with rulers actively supporting farming.

While early internal trade relied on barter, coins became increasingly common. Major port cities like Puhar, Muziris, and Korkai were hubs for international commerce. A defining feature was the extensive maritime trade with the Roman Empire, where South India exported highly coveted goods like fine cotton, spices (especially pepper), pearls, and ivory, receiving Roman gold, silver, and other items in return. The discovery of monsoon winds significantly boosted these sea voyages, leading to a substantial influx of Roman gold into the region. Efficient road networks also facilitated the movement of goods within the kingdoms.

Question 6.

With reference to economic conditions during the Sangam Age, explain the following:

(a) Significance of Occupational Guilds

(b) Socio-economic Inequalities in the Sangam Age.

Ans:

During the Sangam Age, occupational guilds were vital to the economy, organizing and regulating specialized crafts and trades like weaving and metalwork. Known as nigamas or manigramams, they controlled production quality, established work rules, and even engaged in financial and welfare activities, showcasing a complex economy beyond agriculture.

Despite economic prosperity, the Sangam Age was marked by significant socio-economic inequalities. Evidence points to stark wealth disparities, with the rich inhabiting brick homes and the poor in huts. Social stratification was present, though not identical to the northern varna system; Brahmins and the ruling Arasar class held privileged positions. Landed Vellalars also enjoyed considerable power. Lower on the social ladder were groups like landless laborers such as Kadaisiyar, Adimai, and Pulaiyans, as well as Pariyars, who performed menial tasks, highlighting varying social statuses based on occupation. Kings and chieftains further solidified economic dominance through control over vast resources.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS

Question 1.
What is meant by the term ‘the Sangam Age’ ?
Ans:

The ‘Sangam Age’ refers to a historical period in ancient South India, roughly from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE, primarily in Tamil Nadu. It’s named after the “Sangams” – assemblies of Tamil poets and scholars who flourished under the patronage of the Pandyan kings in Madurai. During this era, a vast body of Tamil literature was composed, which serves as the principal source for understanding the political, social, and economic life of the time. It was characterized by the dominance of three major kingdoms: the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas, and a vibrant culture deeply rooted in agriculture and extensive maritime trade.

Question 2.
Name the author of Tolkappiyam.
Ans:
The author of Tolkappiyam was Tolkappiar.

Question 3.
Name the three kingdoms mentioned in the Sangam texts.
Ans:
The three kingdoms mentioned in the Sangam texts were Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.

Question 4.
Name any three Epics mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Ans:

While sometimes grouped with Sangam literature, the great Tamil epics are generally considered to belong to the post-Sangam period (around 5th-6th centuries CE onwards) rather than the strict Sangam Age (3rd century BCE – 4th century CE) itself.

However, if asked to name epics often discussed in the context of early Tamil literature, three prominent ones are:

1. Silappadikaram
2. Manimekalai
3. Jivaka Chintamani

Question 5.
What was the theme of the Aham type of literature ?
Ans:

The core theme of Aham (or Akam) literature in the Sangam Age was love and internal emotions. These poems focused on the subjective, intimate aspects of human relationships, particularly between a man and a woman.

They explored various stages and nuances of love, including:

• Pre-marital love
• Separation and longing
• Union and intimacy
• Infidelity and jealousy
• The role of intermediaries (like friends or confidantes)

Unlike Puram literature which dealt with external, public matters like war and heroism, Aham poems delved into the private world of feelings, often set against specific natural landscapes (the five tinais) that symbolized different emotional states.

Question 6.
What were the topics of Puram category of poems ?
Ans:

Puram poems in Sangam literature delve into the “exterior” aspects of life, primarily focusing on warfare and heroism, celebrating the valor of kings and warriors. They also depict public life and governance, often eulogizing rulers for their administration and generosity. Furthermore, these poems explore social ethics like honor, loyalty, and the fleeting nature of life, while also vividly portraying the devastating impact of war on both individuals and society.

Question 7.
Name the author of Tirukkural.
Ans:
The author of Tirukkural was Tiruvalluvar.

Question 8.
In whose honor were the hero stones erected during the Sangam Age ?
Ans:

During the Sangam Age, hero stones (known as Nadukal in Tamil) were erected to commemorate warriors who died bravely, typically in battle. These stones served as memorials to individuals who sacrificed their lives for their village, king, or community, often in defense against cattle raids or other conflicts. They symbolized valor and were sometimes even worshipped.

Question 9.
Name the four castes mentioned in the Tolkappiyam.
Ans:

The Tolkappiyam, an ancient Tamil grammatical text, identifies four primary social divisions in the Sangam Age:

• Arasar: The ruling elite, encompassing kings and warriors.
• Anthanar: Respected priests and scholars.
• Vanigar: Those engaged in trade and commerce.
• Vellalar: Agriculturists and influential landed proprietors.

Question 10.
Name the five physiographic divisions or tinais mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Ans:

Sangam literature identifies five distinct physiographic divisions, or tinais, each with its unique landscape, associated flora, fauna, and way of life. These are:

1. Kurinji: Hilly/mountainous regions
2. Mullai: Pastoral/forest tracts
3. Marutham: Wet/agricultural lands (plains)
4. Neithal: Coastal/littoral areas
5. Palai: Parched/dry lands (arid zones)

Question 11.
Who were the Vellalas during the Sangam Age?
Ans:

During the Sangam Age, the Vellalas were a prominent social group, primarily identified as prosperous landed agriculturalists. They held significant influence, often forming the upper stratum of the peasantry and playing a crucial role in the economy through their management of fertile lands, particularly the wetlands.

Beyond agriculture, some Vellalas also engaged in trade and held high positions in the administration and military of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms, indicating their considerable social and political standing. They were a diverse group, and the term encompassed various sub-communities with different roles and statuses throughout the Tamil country.

Question 12.
Name the chief crops grown during the Sangam Period.
Ans:

During the Sangam Period, the primary crops grown were:

• Rice (Paddy): The staple and most important crop.
• Sugarcane
• Millets (such as ragi)
• Cotton
• Spices: Notably pepper, ginger, cardamom, turmeric, and cinnamon.
• Various fruits and grams.

Question 13.
Name one center of cotton trade mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Ans:
Uraiyur was a great center of cotton trade.

Question 14.
Name the products exported to foreign lands during the Sangam Age.
Ans:

During the Sangam Age, South India maintained a flourishing export trade with foreign powers, notably the Roman Empire. The primary goods sent abroad were highly prized spices like pepper (dubbed “black gold”), ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, and turmeric. Other significant exports included pearls, particularly those sourced from the Pandyan port of Korkai, premium textiles such as fine cotton and silk, detailed ivory artifacts, and various precious stones, notably beryl. During the Sangam Age, South India engaged in a thriving export trade with foreign nations, particularly the Roman Empire. Key goods shipped included valuable spices such as pepper (“black gold”), ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, and turmeric. Other significant exports comprised pearls, especially from the Pandyan kingdom’s port of Korkai, high-quality textiles like fine cotton and silk, intricate ivory products, and various precious stones, including beryl.

Question 15.
Name any two ports of the Sangam Age.
Ans:

Two prominent ports of the Sangam Age were Muziris (important for Chera trade with the Roman Empire) and Kaveripattinam (a major port for the Chola kingdom).

II. Structured Questions

Question 1.

With reference to the sources of information about the Sangam Age, explain the significance of the following;

(a) Literary texts (b) Megaliths (c) Hero stones

Ans:

Sources for the Sangam Age

The Sangam Age in South India is a pivotal period in the region’s history, and our understanding of it comes from a combination of diverse sources. These sources, both literary and archaeological, provide a detailed picture of the society, politics, and culture of the time.

Literary Evidence: Sangam Literature

Sangam literature is the most vital primary source for studying the Sangam Age. These ancient Tamil texts, including the Tolkappiyam, Ettuttogai, and Pattuppattu, are invaluable for historical reconstruction. They offer vivid descriptions of the three major ruling dynasties of the period—the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. These works also shed light on the social hierarchy, daily life, the status of women, and the economic backbone of the era, which was built on agriculture and robust maritime trade from ports like Muziris and Kaveripattinam. Furthermore, the poems mention specific rulers, battles, and trade relationships, helping historians build a coherent narrative of the time.

Archaeological Evidence: Megaliths

Megaliths, or large stone structures, provide crucial archaeological evidence that complements the literary sources. These sites, primarily burial grounds, reveal information about the funerary customs and beliefs of the time. The artifacts unearthed from these burials—such as distinct black and red pottery, iron tools, and organic remains—offer insights into the material culture, technological advancements, and agricultural practices of the people. The widespread presence of megaliths across the region indicates a significant cultural phase that existed alongside and even predates the Sangam period.

Archaeological Evidence: Hero Stones

Hero stones, known as Virakal or Nadukkal, are memorial markers erected to honor warriors who died bravely in battle, often during cattle raids. These stones are highly significant because they:

• Confirm literary accounts: Sangam poems frequently mention the tradition of erecting hero stones, and the discovery of these monuments provides tangible proof of this practice.
• Highlight social values: They underscore the high regard for valor and heroism in Sangam society and indicate the importance of cattle as a source of wealth and conflict.
• Contribute historical data: Inscriptions on some hero stones provide specific names, circumstances of death, and occasionally the names of local chiefs or kings, helping historians to piece together the political history of the era.
• Reveal religious beliefs: The veneration of these stones shows a form of indigenous ancestor worship and a deep respect for fallen heroes.

2. With reference to the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:

Question 2 (a) .

Explain why the Sangam Age is so. called ?

Ans:

The Sangam Age gets its name from the “Sangams,” legendary assemblies of Tamil poets and scholars traditionally believed to have thrived in ancient Madurai under the sponsorship of the Pandya kings. These literary academies were instrumental in composing and compiling the extensive body of early Tamil literature, which serves as our primary historical record for this significant period.

Question 2 (b) .

Name the three kingdoms that existed during the Sangam Age. Describe the achievements of Chera ruler, Senguttuvan ; and Chola ruler, Karikalan.

Ans:

Among their notable rulers, Chera king Senguttuvan and Chola king Karikalan stand out for their significant achievements.

Senguttuvan, a powerful Chera monarch, famously undertook a military expedition to the Himalayas, where he triumphed over several North Indian kings. His reign is also marked by the introduction of the Pattini cult, a unique form of worship where Kannagi was venerated as the epitome of wifely devotion throughout Tamil Nadu. 

As for the Cholas, Karikalan is celebrated as the greatest of the Early Cholas. His enduring legacy includes the crucial construction of flood banks along the Kaveri River, a project that greatly benefited agriculture in the region. Furthermore, Karikalan’s military prowess extended his dominion, as he is credited with conquering not only Tamilakam but also parts of Andhra and Sri Lanka, cementing his position as a formidable ruler of the Sangam era.

3. With reference to the society that existed during the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:

Question 3 (a) .

Explain briefly the functions of the four castes mentioned in the Tolkappiyam.

Ans:

The Tolkappiyam, an ancient Tamil grammatical text, offers a glimpse into the social structure of the Sangam Age by identifying four primary groups, often seen as occupational divisions rather than rigid castes:

• Arasar (Ruling Class/Kings): These individuals were responsible for governance, safeguarding the territory, enforcing law, and leading military campaigns to ensure the kingdom’s welfare and defense.
• Anthanar (Brahmins/Priests): Comprising priests, scholars, and royal advisors, their roles involved conducting religious ceremonies, providing spiritual counsel, serving as judicial authorities, and guiding the monarchy with their wisdom. They held a respected and learned position.
• Vanigar (Traders/Merchants): This group drove the economy through their engagement in both domestic and international trade, facilitating the movement and exchange of goods, thereby contributing to the region’s prosperity.
• Vellalar (Agriculturists/Farmers): Primarily farmers and significant landowners, their vital function was cultivating the land, producing essential food grains and other agricultural products, and forming the economic backbone of Sangam society.

Question 3 (b) .

Name the physiographic divisions of the Tamil land and the occupations associated with each one of them.

Ans:

The traditional land of the ancient Tamils, known as Tamilakam, was divided into five distinct geographical zones, each with its own characteristic way of life.

Kurinji (Hilly and Mountainous Region) 

The inhabitants of the Kurinji region, including the Kuravar and Vedar people, were primarily engaged in occupations tied to their environment. Their main activities included hunting, gathering forest products like honey and fruits, and practicing shifting cultivation of crops such as millets.

Mullai (Forests and Pastoral Lands) 

The Ayar and Idaiyar communities were known for raising cattle and engaging in dairy farming, producing milk, curd, and butter. They also practiced some form of shifting agriculture.

Neithal (Coastal Region) 

The people of the Neithal region, called Paratavar, lived along the seashore. Their livelihoods were centered on the sea, with key occupations being fishing, salt production, and trade along the coast.

Palai (Drylands and Deserts) 

The Palai region was characterized by its dry and barren landscape, which often resulted from the desiccation of other regions. Due to the scarcity of resources, the inhabitants, known as Maravar and Eyinar, resorted to activities like plundering and cattle raiding, though they also engaged in occasional trade.

Question 3 (c) .

Explain the position of women.

Ans:

In the Mauryan Empire, women’s status was nuanced, characterized by prevailing patriarchal norms alongside notable spheres of independence. While largely confined to domestic duties and subordinate roles, they actively participated in economic activities like spinning, weaving, and agriculture. Courtesans, celebrated for their artistic talents, were also an established and regulated part of society.

Socially, the Arthashastra permitted divorce for both genders and sanctioned widow remarriage, particularly within lower castes.Education was accessible to certain women, particularly those in higher social strata, encompassing arts, music, and philosophy. Thus, despite a patriarchal framework, Mauryan women’s roles were diverse, influenced by their social standing, and included specific legal rights and engagement in the empire’s economic, and even political-security, sectors.

4. With reference to the economy during the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:

Question 4 (a) .

What was the main occupation of the people and the activities associated with it ? What were the other occupations of the people ?

Ans:

Agriculture formed the backbone of the Mauryan economy, with people cultivating diverse crops like rice, wheat, and millets, alongside cash crops such as sugarcane and cotton. This was supported by advanced techniques including extensive irrigation, crop rotation, terracing, and manuring. The state actively encouraged agricultural expansion, including forest clearance, as it was the empire’s primary revenue source.

Beyond farming, other notable occupations included:

• Crafts and Artisanship: A significant sector covering textiles, metalwork, carpentry (including shipbuilding), pottery, leather, jewelry, and ivory carving, often organized into guilds.
• Trade and Commerce: Flourishing internal and external trade, facilitated by land and river routes connecting major centers like Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain, with state regulation of markets and standards.
• Animal Husbandry: Rearing livestock, often alongside farming, with animals subject to taxation.
• Mining and Metallurgy: Extraction and processing of metals, notably iron, which was a state monopoly.
• Military Service: Providing employment in the large standing army.
• Government Service: Opportunities within the extensive and centralized bureaucracy at various levels.
• Hunting and Gathering: Continued by some populations, especially in forested areas, though less dominant.

Question 4 (b) .

Explain the organisation of internal trade.

Ans:

The internal trade system of the Mauryan Empire was a highly organized and state-regulated affair, designed to promote efficiency and generate revenue. Its key features included:

Infrastructure

The Mauryas maintained an extensive network of roads and utilized major rivers, such as the Ganges and Yamuna, to facilitate the transport of goods. State-appointed officials, like the agoranomoi, were tasked with road maintenance and the placement of distance markers to aid travelers and merchants.

State Control and Administration

The government exercised significant control over trade. Officials like the Panyadhyaksa (Superintendent of Commerce) were responsible for managing commercial activities, including setting prices to ensure fair profit margins and preventing fraudulent practices. The Sulkaadhyaksha was in charge of collecting tolls and customs duties, which were a major source of state income.

Merchant and Artisan Guilds

Artisans and merchants were organized into powerful guilds known as srenis. These guilds were instrumental in regulating production standards and even held some legal authority over their members. They also functioned as banking institutions, accepting deposits from the public. Long-distance trade was often conducted in caravans (sarthas) led by a caravan leader, the Mahasarthavaha.

Standardization and Taxation

To streamline commerce, the Mauryan Empire introduced a standardized system of punch-marked coins made of silver and copper. Officials like the Rupadarshaka oversaw currency circulation. A uniform system of weights and measures, supervised by the Pautvadhyaksha, further simplified transactions. Taxes and tolls, often a significant portion of an item’s value, were levied on goods, with domestically produced goods and imports being stamped at different points to signify that taxes were paid.

Question 4 (c) .

Explain the extent and significance of external trade.

Ans:

The Mauryan Empire fostered extensive external trade, reaching far beyond its borders. Its network stretched to Hellenistic kingdoms in West Asia (like the Seleucid Empire) and possibly even to Southeast Asia and parts of Africa. Key land routes included the Uttarapath, connecting the northwest (Taxila) to Pataliputra, and further extending to Central and West Asia via the Khyber Pass. Maritime trade also developed, with major ports like Barygaza (Broach) on the west coast and Tamralipti on the east, facilitating connections with the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Peninsula, and possibly Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

The significance of this external trade was considerable:

• State Revenue: The state actively regulated trade, imposing tolls and customs duties, which significantly contributed to the imperial treasury and supported the large standing army and extensive bureaucracy.
• Cultural Exchange: Trade routes facilitated the exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural influences. Diplomatic relations with Hellenistic powers, maintained through trade, led to a degree of cultural interaction. The spread of Buddhism, for instance, also utilized these established trade networks.
• Urbanization: Thriving trade centers like Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain grew in importance, contributing to urbanization and the development of a complex urban economy.
• Infrastructure Development: To facilitate trade, the Mauryans invested in infrastructure, building and maintaining major roads, and establishing a uniform currency system (punch-marked silver coins like the “pana”), which eased commercial transactions.